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Policy Space Response Oracles (PSRO) is a reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm for two-player zero-sum games that has been empirically shown to find approximate Nash equilibria in large games. Although PSRO is guaranteed to converge to an…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2022-02-01 Stephen McAleer , John Lanier , Kevin Wang , Pierre Baldi , Roy Fox

Policy-Space Response Oracles (PSRO) is a general algorithmic framework for learning policies in multiagent systems by interleaving empirical game analysis with deep reinforcement learning (Deep RL). At each iteration, Deep RL is invoked to…

Multiagent Systems · Computer Science 2021-06-04 Max Olan Smith , Thomas Anthony , Michael P. Wellman

Game theory provides a mathematical way to study the interaction between multiple decision makers. However, classical game-theoretic analysis is limited in scalability due to the large number of strategies, precluding direct application to…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2024-05-28 Ariyan Bighashdel , Yongzhao Wang , Stephen McAleer , Rahul Savani , Frans A. Oliehoek

Offline learning of strategies takes data efficiency to its extreme by restricting algorithms to a fixed dataset of state-action trajectories. We consider the problem in a mixed-motive multiagent setting, where the goal is to solve a game…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-03-03 Austin A. Nguyen , Michael P. Wellman

Policy space response oracles (PSRO) is a multi-agent reinforcement learning algorithm that has achieved state-of-the-art performance in very large two-player zero-sum games. PSRO is based on the tabular double oracle (DO) method, an…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2022-02-01 Stephen McAleer , Kevin Wang , John Lanier , Marc Lanctot , Pierre Baldi , Tuomas Sandholm , Roy Fox

Policy Space Response Oracle methods (PSRO) provide a general solution to learn Nash equilibrium in two-player zero-sum games but suffer from two drawbacks: (1) the computation inefficiency due to the need for consistent meta-game…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2022-06-02 Ming Zhou , Jingxiao Chen , Ying Wen , Weinan Zhang , Yaodong Yang , Yong Yu , Jun Wang

Large language models (LLMs) have enabled rapid progress in automatic heuristic discovery (AHD), yet most existing methods are predominantly limited by static evaluation against fixed instance distributions, leading to potential overfitting…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Xinyi Ke , Kai Li , Junliang Xing , Yifan Zhang , Jian Cheng

The Policy-Space Response Oracles (PSRO) framework scales equilibrium computation to large zero-sum games by iteratively expanding a restricted strategy set using deep reinforcement learning (DRL). A central challenge is to construct, under…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-28 Junyu Zhang , Feihong Yang , Jian Wang , Chao Wang , Xudong Zhang

Computational equilibrium finding in large zero-sum extensive-form imperfect-information games has led to significant recent AI breakthroughs. The fastest algorithms for the problem are new forms of counterfactual regret minimization [Brown…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2020-07-01 Brian Hu Zhang , Tuomas Sandholm

Recent advances in multi-agent reinforcement learning, particularly Policy-Space Response Oracles (PSRO), have enabled the computation of approximate game-theoretic equilibria in increasingly complex domains. However, these methods rely on…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2026-03-12 Daniel Hennes , Zun Li , John Schultz , Marc Lanctot

Finding approximate Nash equilibria in zero-sum imperfect-information games is challenging when the number of information states is large. Policy Space Response Oracles (PSRO) is a deep reinforcement learning algorithm grounded in game…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2021-02-22 Stephen McAleer , John Lanier , Roy Fox , Pierre Baldi

Solving Nash equilibrium is the key challenge in normal-form games with large strategy spaces, where open-ended learning frameworks offer an efficient approach. In this work, we propose an innovative unified open-ended learning framework…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2024-03-25 Yudong Hu , Haoran Li , Congying Han , Tiande Guo , Mingqiang Li , Bonan Li

Much of the advancement in Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL) for imperfect-information games has historically depended on the manual, iterative refinement of algorithmic baselines. Recently, evolutionary coding agents powered by…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Zun Li , John Schultz , Daniel Hennes , Marc Lanctot

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) is the leading framework for solving large imperfect-information games. It converges to an equilibrium by iteratively traversing the game tree. In order to deal with extremely large games,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2019-05-23 Noam Brown , Adam Lerer , Sam Gross , Tuomas Sandholm

This paper investigates a population-based training regime based on game-theoretic principles called Policy-Spaced Response Oracles (PSRO). PSRO is general in the sense that it (1) encompasses well-known algorithms such as fictitious play…

Policy Space Response Oracles (PSRO) interleaves empirical game-theoretic analysis with deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to solve games too complex for traditional analytic methods. Tree-exploiting PSRO (TE-PSRO) is a variant of this…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-02-18 Christine Konicki , Mithun Chakraborty , Michael P. Wellman

In the past decade, motivated by the putative failure of naive self-play deep reinforcement learning (DRL) in adversarial imperfect-information games, researchers have developed numerous DRL algorithms based on fictitious play (FP), double…

Policy-Space Response Oracles (PSRO) is an influential algorithm framework for approximating a Nash Equilibrium (NE) in multi-agent non-transitive games. Many previous studies have been trying to promote policy diversity in PSRO. A major…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2023-11-09 Jian Yao , Weiming Liu , Haobo Fu , Yaodong Yang , Stephen McAleer , Qiang Fu , Wei Yang

Offline reinforcement learning (offline RL) is an emerging field that has recently begun gaining attention across various application domains due to its ability to learn strategies from earlier collected datasets. Offline RL proved very…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-02-09 Shuxin Li , Xinrun Wang , Youzhi Zhang , Jakub Cerny , Pengdeng Li , Hau Chan , Bo An

Solving strategic games with huge action space is a critical yet under-explored topic in economics, operations research and artificial intelligence. This paper proposes new learning algorithms for solving two-player zero-sum normal-form…

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