English

Code-Space Response Oracles: Generating Interpretable Multi-Agent Policies with Large Language Models

Computer Science and Game Theory 2026-03-12 v1 Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning

Abstract

Recent advances in multi-agent reinforcement learning, particularly Policy-Space Response Oracles (PSRO), have enabled the computation of approximate game-theoretic equilibria in increasingly complex domains. However, these methods rely on deep reinforcement learning oracles that produce `black-box' neural network policies, making them difficult to interpret, trust or debug. We introduce Code-Space Response Oracles (CSRO), a novel framework that addresses this challenge by replacing RL oracles with Large Language Models (LLMs). CSRO reframes the best response computation as a code generation task, prompting an LLM to generate policies directly as human-readable code. This approach not only yields inherently interpretable policies but also leverages the LLM's pretrained knowledge to discover complex, human-like strategies. We explore multiple ways to construct and enhance an LLM-based oracle: zero-shot prompting, iterative refinement and \emph{AlphaEvolve}, a distributed LLM-based evolutionary system. We demonstrate that CSRO achieves performance competitive with baselines while producing a diverse set of explainable policies. Our work presents a new perspective on multi-agent learning, shifting the focus from optimizing opaque policy parameters to synthesizing interpretable algorithmic behavior.

Keywords

Cite

@article{arxiv.2603.10098,
  title  = {Code-Space Response Oracles: Generating Interpretable Multi-Agent Policies with Large Language Models},
  author = {Daniel Hennes and Zun Li and John Schultz and Marc Lanctot},
  journal= {arXiv preprint arXiv:2603.10098},
  year   = {2026}
}

Comments

Accepted as an Extended Abstract at the Twenty-Fifth International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS)

R2 v1 2026-07-01T11:13:40.706Z