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Ethereum is a distributed blockchain that can execute smart contracts, which inter-communicate and perform transactions automatically. The execution of smart contracts is paid in the form of gas, which is a monetary unit used in the…

Smart contracts are full-fledged programs that run on blockchains (e.g., Ethereum, one of the most popular blockchains). In Ethereum, gas (in Ether, a cryptographic currency like Bitcoin) is the execution fee compensating the computing…

Ethereum's Gas mechanism attempts to set transaction fees in accordance with the computational cost of transaction execution: a cost borne by default by every node on the network to ensure correct smart contract execution. Gas encourages…

The execution of smart contracts on Ethereum, a public blockchain system, incurs a fee called gas fee for its computation and data storage. When programmers develop smart contracts (e.g., in the Solidity programming language), they could…

The gas mechanism in Ethereum charges the execution of every operation to ensure that smart contracts running in EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine) will be eventually terminated. Failing to properly set the gas costs of EVM operations allows…

Gas is the transaction-fee metering system of the Ethereum network. Users of the network are required to select a gas price for submission with their transaction, creating a risk of overpaying or delayed/unprocessed transactions in this…

The cost of using a blockchain infrastructure as well as the time required to search and retrieve information from it must be considered when designing a decentralized application. In this work, we examine a comprehensive set of data…

The gas fee, paid for inclusion in the blockchain, is analyzed in two parts. First, we consider how effort in terms of resources required to process and store a transaction turns into a gas limit, which, through a fee, comprised of the base…

Nowadays, more and more applications are developed for running on a distributed ledger technology, namely dApps. The business logic of dApps is usually implemented within smart contracts developed through Solidity, a programming language…

We present the main concepts, components, and usage of GASOL, a Gas AnalysiS and Optimization tooL for Ethereum smart contracts. GASOL offers a wide variety of cost models that allow inferring the gas consumption associated to selected…

The Ethereum blockchain has a \emph{gas system} that associates operations with a cost in gas units. Two central concepts of this system are the \emph{gas limit} assigned by the issuer of a transaction and the \emph{gas used} by a…

In the Ethereum network, miners are incentivized to include transactions in a block depending on the gas price specified by the sender. The sender of a transaction therefore faces a trade-off between timely inclusion and cost of his…

Blockchain applications are witnessing rapid evolution, necessitating the integration of upgradeable smart contracts. Software patterns have been proposed to summarize upgradeable smart contract best practices. However, research is missing…

This paper presents a multi-contract blockchain framework for inter-provider agreements in 6G networks, emphasizing performance analysis under a realistic Proof-of-Stake (PoS) setting on Ethereum's Sepolia testnet. We begin by quantifying…

While a plethora of machine learning (ML) models are currently available, along with their implementation on disparate platforms, there is hardly any verifiable ML code which can be executed on public blockchains. We propose a novel…

Smart contracts are small programs that run autonomously on the blockchain, using it as their persistent memory. The predominant platform for smart contracts is the Ethereum VM (EVM). In EVM smart contracts, a problem with significant…

In the blockchain-based, distributed computing platform Ethereum, programs called smart contracts are compiled to bytecode and executed on the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). Executing EVM bytecode is subject to monetary fees---a clear…

As transaction fees skyrocket today, blockchains become increasingly expensive, hurting their adoption in broader applications. This work tackles the saving of transaction fees for economic blockchain applications. The key insight is that…

Smart contracts are programs that are executed on a blockhain. They have been used for applications in voting, decentralized finance, and supply chain management. However, vulnerabilities in smart contracts have been abused by hackers,…

Smart contracts are programs that are executed on the blockchain and can hold, manage and transfer assets in the form of cryptocurrencies. The contract's execution is then performed on-chain and is subject to consensus, i.e. every node on…