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We characterize the computational power of neural networks that follow the graph neural network (GNN) architecture, not restricted to aggregate-combine GNNs or other particular types. We establish an exact correspondence between the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-11-22 Timon Barlag , Vivian Holzapfel , Laura Strieker , Jonni Virtema , Heribert Vollmer

Despite the remarkable success of Graph Neural Networks (GNNs), the common belief is that their representation power is limited and that they are at most as expressive as the Weisfeiler-Lehman (WL) algorithm. In this paper, we argue the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-07-25 Charilaos I. Kanatsoulis , Alejandro Ribeiro

While instance-level explanation of GNN is a well-studied problem with plenty of approaches being developed, providing a global explanation for the behaviour of a GNN is much less explored, despite its potential in interpretability and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-04-13 Steve Azzolin , Antonio Longa , Pietro Barbiero , Pietro Liò , Andrea Passerini

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have emerged as the predominant approach for learning over graph-structured data. However, most GNNs operate as black-box models and require post-hoc explanations, which may not suffice in high-stakes scenarios…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-14 Maya Bechler-Speicher , Amir Globerson , Ran Gilad-Bachrach

We study and compare different Graph Neural Network extensions that increase the expressive power of GNNs beyond the Weisfeiler-Leman test. We focus on (i) GNNs based on higher order WL methods, (ii) GNNs that preprocess small substructures…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-02-01 Pál András Papp , Roger Wattenhofer

It has been recently shown that general policies for many classical planning domains can be expressed and learned in terms of a pool of features defined from the domain predicates using a description logic grammar. At the same time, most…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2022-05-09 Simon Ståhlberg , Blai Bonet , Hector Geffner

The expressive power of message-passing graph neural networks (MPNNs) is reasonably well understood, primarily through combinatorial techniques from graph isomorphism testing. However, MPNNs' generalization abilities -- making meaningful…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-11 Antonis Vasileiou , Ben Finkelshtein , Floris Geerts , Ron Levie , Christopher Morris

Graph neural networks (GNNs) have achieved great success in many graph learning tasks. The main aspect powering existing GNNs is the multi-layer network architecture to learn the nonlinear graph representations for the specific learning…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-02-21 Beibei Wang , Bo Jiang

GNN-based approaches for learning general policies across planning domains are limited by the expressive power of $C_2$, namely; first-order logic with two variables and counting. This limitation can be overcame by transitioning to…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-02-19 Simon Ståhlberg , Blai Bonet , Hector Geffner

Subgraph-enhanced graph neural networks (SGNN) can increase the expressive power of the standard message-passing framework. This model family represents each graph as a collection of subgraphs, generally extracted by random sampling or with…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-04-17 Indro Spinelli , Michele Guerra , Filippo Maria Bianchi , Simone Scardapane

Although there has been significant interest in applying machine learning techniques to structured data, the expressivity (i.e., a description of what can be learned) of such techniques is still poorly understood. In this paper, we study…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-06-16 David Tena Cucala , Bernardo Cuenca Grau , Boris Motik , Egor V. Kostylev

It is feasible and practically-valuable to bridge the characteristics between graph neural networks (GNNs) and logical reasoning. Despite considerable efforts and successes witnessed to solve Boolean satisfiability (SAT), it remains a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-09-30 Ziliang Chen , Zhanfu Yang

Graph neural networks (GNNs) are effective models for representation learning on relational data. However, standard GNNs are limited in their expressive power, as they cannot distinguish graphs beyond the capability of the Weisfeiler-Leman…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-07 Ralph Abboud , İsmail İlkan Ceylan , Martin Grohe , Thomas Lukasiewicz

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) are widely used to compute representations of node pairs for downstream tasks such as link prediction. Yet, theoretical understanding of their expressive power has focused almost entirely on graph-level…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-01 Veronica Lachi , Francesco Ferrini , Antonio Longa , Bruno Lepri , Andrea Passerini , Manfred Jaeger

This paper studies the expressive power of graph neural networks falling within the message-passing framework (GNNmp). Two results are presented. First, GNNmp are shown to be Turing universal under sufficient conditions on their depth,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-01-29 Andreas Loukas

Graph neural networks (GNNs) have demonstrated a significant boost in prediction performance on graph data. At the same time, the predictions made by these models are often hard to interpret. In that regard, many efforts have been made to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-24 Yiqiao Li , Jianlong Zhou , Sunny Verma , Fang Chen

While Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have achieved remarkable results in a variety of applications, recent studies exposed important shortcomings in their ability to capture the structure of the underlying graph. It has been shown that the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-26 Giorgos Bouritsas , Fabrizio Frasca , Stefanos Zafeiriou , Michael M. Bronstein

Graph neural networks (GNNs) are highly effective on a variety of graph-related tasks; however, they lack interpretability and transparency. Current explainability approaches are typically local and treat GNNs as black-boxes. They do not…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-10 Han Xuanyuan , Pietro Barbiero , Dobrik Georgiev , Lucie Charlotte Magister , Pietro Lió

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) address two key challenges in applying deep learning to graph-structured data: they handle varying size input graphs and ensure invariance under graph isomorphism. While GNNs have demonstrated broad…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-20 Bernardo Cuenca Grau , Eva Feng , Przemysław Andrzej Wałęga

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have achieved much success on graph-structured data. In light of this, there have been increasing interests in studying their expressive power. One line of work studies the capability of GNNs to approximate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-14 Zhengdao Chen , Soledad Villar , Lei Chen , Joan Bruna