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We study the expressive power of graph neural networks (GNNs) with mean as the aggregation function, with the following results. In the non-uniform setting, such GNNs have exactly the same expressive power as ratio modal logic, which has…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-12-22 Moritz Schönherr , Carsten Lutz

We study the expressive power of message-passing aggregate-combine-readout graph neural networks (ACR-GNNs). Particularly, we focus on the first-order (FO) properties expressible by this formalism. While a tight logical characterisation…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Maurice Funk , Daumantas Kojelis

Graph neural networks (GNNs) can effectively model structural information of graphs, making them widely used in knowledge graph (KG) reasoning. However, existing studies on the expressive power of GNNs mainly focuses on simple…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-02 Han Yu , Xiaojuan Zhao , Aiping Li , Kai Chen , Ziniu Liu , Zhichao Peng

The expressivity of Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) can be described via appropriate fragments of the first order logic. Any query of the two variable fragment of graded modal logic (GC2) interpreted over labeled graphs can be expressed using…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-14 Sammy Khalife

Graph neural networks (GNNs) are a widely used class of machine learning models for graph-structured data, based on local aggregation over neighbors. GNNs have close connections to logic. In particular, their expressive power is linked to…

Logic in Computer Science · Computer Science 2026-01-30 Arie Soeteman , Michael Benedikt , Martin Grohe , Balder ten Cate

Effectively combining logic reasoning and probabilistic inference has been a long-standing goal of machine learning: the former has the ability to generalize with small training data, while the latter provides a principled framework for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-09-24 Yuyu Zhang , Xinshi Chen , Yuan Yang , Arun Ramamurthy , Bo Li , Yuan Qi , Le Song

Graph neural networks (GNNs) are the standard for learning on graphs, yet they have limited expressive power, often expressed in terms of the Weisfeiler-Leman (WL) hierarchy or within the framework of first-order logic. In this context,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Amirreza Akbari , Amauri H. Souza , Vikas Garg

The study of Graph Neural Networks has received considerable interest in the past few years. By extending deep learning to graph-structured data, GNNs can solve a diverse set of tasks in fields including social science, chemistry, and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-12 Ashwin Nalwade , Kelly Marshall , Axel Eladi , Umang Sharma

In recent years, the expressive power of various neural architectures -- including graph neural networks (GNNs), transformers, and recurrent neural networks -- has been characterised using tools from logic and formal language theory. As the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-29 Marco Sälzer , Przemysław Andrzej Wałęga , Martin Lange

In pioneering work from 2019, Barcel\'o and coauthors identified logics that precisely match the expressive power of constant iteration-depth graph neural networks (GNNs) relative to properties definable in first-order logic. In this…

Logic in Computer Science · Computer Science 2025-05-05 Veeti Ahvonen , Damian Heiman , Antti Kuusisto , Carsten Lutz

We propose a modal logic in which counting modalities appear in linear inequalities. We show that each formula can be transformed into an equivalent graph neural network (GNN). We also show that a broad class of GNNs can be transformed…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-03-28 Pierre Nunn , Marco Sälzer , François Schwarzentruber , Nicolas Troquard

Graph neural networks (GNNs) are effective machine learning models for various graph learning problems. Despite their empirical successes, the theoretical limitations of GNNs have been revealed recently. Consequently, many GNN models have…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-19 Ryoma Sato

As a powerful framework for graph representation learning, Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have garnered significant attention in recent years. However, to the best of our knowledge, there has been no formal analysis of the logical…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-06 Yeyuan Chen , Dingmin Wang

We perform the first adversarial robustness study into Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) that are provably more powerful than traditional Message Passing Neural Networks (MPNNs). In particular, we use adversarial robustness as a tool to uncover…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-07-04 Francesco Campi , Lukas Gosch , Tom Wollschläger , Yan Scholten , Stephan Günnemann

Uniform expressivity guarantees that a Graph Neural Network (GNN) can express a query without the parameters depending on the size of the input graphs. This property is desirable in applications in order to have number of trainable…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-06 Sammy Khalife , Josué Tonelli-Cueto

We present results concerning the expressiveness and decidability of a popular graph learning formalism, graph neural networks (GNNs), exploiting connections with logic. We use a family of recently-discovered decidable logics involving…

Logic in Computer Science · Computer Science 2025-01-31 Michael Benedikt , Chia-Hsuan Lu , Tony Tan

We introduce a logical language for reasoning about quantized aggregate-combine graph neural networks with global readout (ACR-GNNs). We provide a logical characterization and use it to prove that verification tasks for quantized GNNs with…

Logic in Computer Science · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Artem Chernobrovkin , Marco Sälzer , François Schwarzentruber , Nicolas Troquard

Graph neural networks (GNNs) are effective machine learning models for many graph-related applications. Despite their empirical success, many research efforts focus on the theoretical limitations of GNNs, i.e., the GNNs expressive power.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-13 Bingxu Zhang , Changjun Fan , Shixuan Liu , Kuihua Huang , Xiang Zhao , Jincai Huang , Zhong Liu

We present a logic based interpretable model for learning on graphs and an algorithm to distill this model from a Graph Neural Network (GNN). Recent results have shown connections between the expressivity of GNNs and the two-variable…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-22 Alexander Pluska , Pascal Welke , Thomas Gärtner , Sagar Malhotra

The expressivity of Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) is dependent on the aggregation functions they employ. Theoretical works have pointed towards Sum aggregation GNNs subsuming every other GNNs, while certain practical works have observed a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-22 Eran Rosenbluth , Jan Toenshoff , Martin Grohe
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