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Multi-instance learning (MIL) deals with tasks where data is represented by a set of bags and each bag is described by a set of instances. Unlike standard supervised learning, only the bag labels are observed whereas the label for each…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-04-27 Weijia Zhang , Jiuyong Li , Lin Liu

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer in women worldwide. Histopathology image analysis serves as the gold standard for cancer diagnosis. In this regard, whole-slide imaging (WSI), a revolutionary technology in digital pathology,…

Methodology · Statistics 2026-04-21 Baichen Yu , Xuetong Li , Jing Zhou , Hansheng Wang

Automated disease diagnosis using medical image analysis relies on deep learning, often requiring large labeled datasets for supervised model training. Diseases like Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) pose challenges due to scarce and costly…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-26 Salome Kazeminia , Max Joosten , Dragan Bosnacki , Carsten Marr

Introducing interpretability and reasoning into Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods for Whole Slide Image (WSI) analysis is challenging, given the complexity of gigapixel slides. Traditionally, MIL interpretability is limited to…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-21 Saarthak Kapse , Pushpak Pati , Srijan Das , Jingwei Zhang , Chao Chen , Maria Vakalopoulou , Joel Saltz , Dimitris Samaras , Rajarsi R. Gupta , Prateek Prasanna

Oncologists often rely on a multitude of data, including whole-slide images (WSIs), to guide therapeutic decisions, aiming for the best patient outcome. However, predicting the prognosis of cancer patients can be a challenging task due to…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-04-01 M Rita Verdelho , Alexandre Bernardino , Catarina Barata

Whole slide image (WSI) classification is a critical task in computational pathology. However, the gigapixel-size of such images remains a major challenge for the current state of deep-learning. Current methods rely on multiple-instance…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-04 Etienne Pochet , Rami Maroun , Roger Trullo

Given the special situation of modeling gigapixel images, multiple instance learning (MIL) has become one of the most important frameworks for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification. In current practice, most MIL networks often face two…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-01-11 Pei Liu , Luping Ji , Xinyu Zhang , Feng Ye

Current multi-instance learning algorithms for pathology image analysis often require a substantial number of Whole Slide Images for effective training but exhibit suboptimal performance in scenarios with limited learning data. In clinical…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-16 Linhao Qu , Dingkang Yang , Dan Huang , Qinhao Guo , Rongkui Luo , Shaoting Zhang , Xiaosong Wang

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a variation of traditional supervised learning problems where data (referred to as bags) are composed of sub-elements (referred to as instances) and only bag labels are available. MIL has a variety of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-05-02 Han Bao , Tomoya Sakai , Issei Sato , Masashi Sugiyama

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a variation of supervised learning where a single class label is assigned to a bag of instances. In this paper, we state the MIL problem as learning the Bernoulli distribution of the bag label where the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-06-29 Maximilian Ilse , Jakub M. Tomczak , Max Welling

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL), a powerful strategy for weakly supervised learning, is able to perform various prediction tasks on gigapixel Whole Slide Images (WSIs). However, the tens of thousands of patches in WSIs usually incur a vast…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-14 Zhuchen Shao , Liuxi Dai , Yifeng Wang , Haoqian Wang , Yongbing Zhang

The first step in Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) algorithms for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification consists of tiling the input image into smaller patches and computing their feature vectors produced by a pre-trained feature extractor…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-11 Juan I. Pisula , Katarzyna Bozek

Multiple instance learning (MIL) was a weakly supervised learning approach that sought to assign binary class labels to collections of instances known as bags. However, due to their weak supervision nature, the MIL methods were susceptible…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-27 Wenhui Zhu , Peijie Qiu , Xiwen Chen , Oana M. Dumitrascu , Yalin Wang

In the field of computational pathology, the use of decision support systems powered by state-of-the-art deep learning solutions has been hampered by the lack of large labeled datasets. Until recently, studies relied on datasets in the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2018-10-01 Gabriele Campanella , Vitor Werneck Krauss Silva , Thomas J. Fuchs

With the development of computational pathology, deep learning methods for Gleason grading through whole slide images (WSIs) have excellent prospects. Since the size of WSIs is extremely large, the image label usually contains only…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-06-28 Hao Bian , Zhuchen Shao , Yang Chen , Yifeng Wang , Haoqian Wang , Jian Zhang , Yongbing Zhang

We propose Spatial-Aware Correlated Multiple Instance Learning (SAC-MIL) for performing WSI classification. SAC-MIL consists of a positional encoding module to encode position information and a SAC block to perform full instance…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-05 Yu Bai , Zitong Yu , Haowen Tian , Xijing Wang , Shuo Yan , Lin Wang , Honglin Li , Xitong Ling , Bo Zhang , Zheng Zhang , Wufan Wang , Hui Gao , Xiangyang Gong , Wendong Wang

In digital pathology, the multiple instance learning (MIL) strategy is widely used in the weakly supervised histopathology whole slide image (WSI) classification task where giga-pixel WSIs are only labeled at the slide level. However,…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-03-28 Zhan Shi , Jingwei Zhang , Jun Kong , Fusheng Wang

While Large Language Models (LLMs) are emerging as a promising direction in computational pathology, the substantial computational cost of giga-pixel Whole Slide Images (WSIs) necessitates the use of Multi-Instance Learning (MIL) to enable…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-12 Zhenfeng Zhuang , Fangyu Zhou , Liansheng Wang

Weakly supervised instance labeling using only image-level labels, in lieu of expensive fine-grained pixel annotations, is crucial in several applications including medical image analysis. In contrast to conventional instance segmentation…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-07-31 Jayaraman J. Thiagarajan , Satyananda Kashyap , Alexandros Karagyris

Annotating cancerous regions in whole-slide images (WSIs) of pathology samples plays a critical role in clinical diagnosis, biomedical research, and machine learning algorithms development. However, generating exhaustive and accurate…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-06-09 Zhenzhen Wang , Carla Saoud , Sintawat Wangsiricharoen , Aaron W. James , Aleksander S. Popel , Jeremias Sulam