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Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a framework for weakly supervised classification, where labels are assigned to sets of instances, i.e., bags, rather than to individual data points. This paradigm has proven effective in tasks where…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-03 Salome Kazeminia , Carsten Marr , Bastian Rieck

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is a sub-domain of classification problems with positive and negative labels and a "bag" of inputs, where the label is positive if and only if a positive element is contained within the bag, and otherwise is…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-10-30 Edward Raff , James Holt

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) gains popularity in many real-life machine learning applications due to its weakly supervised nature. However, the corresponding effort on explaining MIL lags behind, and it is usually limited to presenting…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-09-07 Dawid Rymarczyk , Adam Pardyl , Jarosław Kraus , Aneta Kaczyńska , Marek Skomorowski , Bartosz Zieliński

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is increasingly being used as a support tool within clinical settings for pathological diagnosis decisions, achieving high performance and removing the annotation burden. However, existing approaches for…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-08-01 Sungrae Hong , Kyungeun Kim , Juhyeon Kim , Sol Lee , Jisu Shin , Chanjae Song , Mun Yong Yi

Whole Slide Images (WSIs) present a challenging computer vision task due to their gigapixel size and presence of numerous artefacts. Yet they are a valuable resource for patient diagnosis and stratification, often representing the gold…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-05 Amaya Gallagher-Syed , Luca Rossi , Felice Rivellese , Costantino Pitzalis , Myles Lewis , Michael Barnes , Gregory Slabaugh

Representation learning of pathology whole-slide images (WSIs) has primarily relied on weak supervision with Multiple Instance Learning (MIL). This approach leads to slide representations highly tailored to a specific clinical task.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-25 Tim Lenz , Peter Neidlinger , Marta Ligero , Georg Wölflein , Marko van Treeck , Jakob Nikolas Kather

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is an effective and widely used approach for weakly supervised machine learning. In histopathology, MIL models have achieved remarkable success in tasks like tumor detection, biomarker prediction, and…

The survival analysis on histological whole-slide images (WSIs) is one of the most important means to estimate patient prognosis. Although many weakly-supervised deep learning models have been developed for gigapixel WSIs, their potential…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-11-06 Pei Liu , Luping Ji , Feng Ye , Bo Fu

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has advanced WSI analysis but struggles with the complexity and heterogeneity of WSIs. Existing MIL methods face challenges in aggregating diverse patch information into robust WSI representations. While…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-28 Beidi Zhao , SangMook Kim , Hao Chen , Chen Zhou , Zu-hua Gao , Gang Wang , Xiaoxiao Li

Deploying digital pathology models across medical centers is challenging due to distribution shifts. Recent advances in domain generalization improve model transferability in terms of aggregated performance measured by the Area Under Curve…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-25 Arthur Pignet , John Klein , Genevieve Robin , Antoine Olivier

A new multi-attention based method for solving the MIL problem (MAMIL), which takes into account the neighboring patches or instances of each analyzed patch in a bag, is proposed. In the method, one of the attention modules takes into…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-14 Andrei V. Konstantinov , Lev V. Utkin

Developing self-supervised learning (SSL) models that can learn universal and transferable representations of H&E gigapixel whole-slide images (WSIs) is becoming increasingly valuable in computational pathology. These models hold the…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-08-07 Guillaume Jaume , Anurag Vaidya , Andrew Zhang , Andrew H. Song , Richard J. Chen , Sharifa Sahai , Dandan Mo , Emilio Madrigal , Long Phi Le , Faisal Mahmood

Computational pathology holds substantial promise for improving diagnosis and guiding treatment decisions. Recent pathology foundation models enable the extraction of rich patch-level representations from large-scale whole-slide images…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-20 Xiangde Luo , Jinxi Xiang , Yuanfeng Ji , Ruijiang Li

Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification with multiple instance learning (MIL) in digital pathology faces significant computational challenges. Current methods mostly rely on extensive self-supervised learning (SSL) for satisfactory…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-04 Hossein Jafarinia , Alireza Alipanah , Danial Hamdi , Saeed Razavi , Nahal Mirzaie , Mohammad Hossein Rohban

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is a widely employed framework for learning on gigapixel whole-slide images (WSIs) from WSI-level annotations. In most MIL based analytical pipelines for WSI-level analysis, the WSIs are often divided into…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-11-01 Imaad Zaffar , Guillaume Jaume , Nasir Rajpoot , Faisal Mahmood

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is the dominant framework for whole-slide image analysis in computational pathology, typically combining a frozen patch encoder, a projection layer, and a slide-level aggregator. While encoders and…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2026-05-19 Yucheng Xing , Pei Liu , Jingying Ma , Ruping Hong , Jiangdong Qiu , Tianyu Liu , Kai He , Ling Huang , Mengling Feng

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has emerged as a dominant paradigm to extract discriminative feature representations within Whole Slide Images (WSIs) in computational pathology. Despite driving notable progress, existing MIL approaches…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-12 Shu Yang , Yihui Wang , Hao Chen

Multiple-instance learning (MIL) is a paradigm of machine learning that aims to classify a set (bag) of objects (instances), assigning labels only to the bags. This problem is often addressed by selecting an instance to represent each bag,…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2021-12-22 Sonia Castelo , Moacir Ponti , Rosane Minghim

Deep learning models have revolutionized the field of medical image analysis, due to their outstanding performances. However, they are sensitive to spurious correlations, often taking advantage of dataset bias to improve results for…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Diogo J. Araújo , M. Rita Verdelho , Alceu Bissoto , Jacinto C. Nascimento , Carlos Santiago , Catarina Barata

Weakly supervised multiple instance learning (MIL) is a challenging task given that only bag-level labels are provided, while each bag typically contains multiple instances. This topic has been extensively studied in histopathological image…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-08-01 Bodong Zhang , Hamid Manoochehri , Xiwen Li , Beatrice S. Knudsen , Tolga Tasdizen