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Primary Frequency Control (PFC) is a fast acting mechanism used to ensure high-quality power for the grid that is becoming an increasingly attractive option for load participation. Due to speed requirement and other considerations, it is…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2019-07-23 Joshua Comden , Tan N. Le , Yue Zhao , Bong Jun Choi , Zhenhua Liu

To address system frequency challenges driven by the integration of renewable generation, advanced control strategies are designed at the device level to provide effective frequency support following disturbances. However, typically relying…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-12-16 Zhongda Chu , Fei Teng

This paper compares the impact of different conventional and emerging technologies and control strategies on frequency quality. We study, in particular, the long-term dynamic performance of grid-forming (GFM) and grid-following (GFL)…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-11-04 Taulant Kerci , Federico Milano

The converter control functions to provide the capabilities similar to synchronous generators are referred to as grid forming converters (GFC). Identical to a synchronous machine, a grid forming converter is expected to behave as a voltage…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2021-06-21 Kanakesh Vatta Kkuni , Sibin Mohan , Guangya Yang , Wilsun Xu

Differing from synchronous generators (SGs), grid-forming inverter-based resources (GFM-IBRs) exhibit rapid variations in their output impedances during transmission line faults due to the overcurrent limitation. As a result, the source…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-11-13 Yifei Li , Heng Wu , Xiongfei Wang

The inherent control switching of renewable energy sources (RESs) during intricate transient processes introduces complexity to the dynamic behavior of modern power systems. This paper reveals the dynamic coupling between grid-forming…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-10-02 Ruiyuan Zeng , Ruisheng Diao , Fangyuan Sun , Wangqianyun Tang , Junjie Li , Baorong Zhou

The frequency stability of a power system is of paramount importance, as a fast frequency swings in the system can lead to oscillatory instability, and thereby blackouts. A grid-connected microgrid, that can operate in the islanded mode can…

The active and reactive power controllers of grid-forming converters are traditionally designed separately, which relies on the assumption of loop decoupling. This paper proposes a full-state feedback control for the power loops of…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2022-12-13 Meng Chen , Dao Zhou , Frede Blaabjerg

This paper derives closed-form solutions for grid-forming converters with power synchronization control (PSC) by subtly simplifying and factorizing the complex closed-loop models. The solutions can offer clear analytical insights into…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-12-05 Fangzhou Zhao , Tianhua Zhu , Lennart Harnefors , Bo Fan , Heng Wu , Zichao Zhou , Yin Sun , Xiongfei Wang

Recent research has shown that operating grid-connected converters using the grid-forming vector current control (GFVCC) scheme offers significant benefits, including the simplicity and modularity of the control architecture, as well as…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-08-06 Ognjen Stanojev , Orcun Karaca , Mario Schweizer

This paper investigates the transient stability of power systems co-dominated by different types of grid-forming (GFM) devices. Synchronous generators (SGs and VSGs) and droop-controlled inverters are typical GFM devices in modern power…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-01-13 Xiuqiang He , Hua Geng

We present a novel, integrated control framework designed to achieve seamless transitions among a spectrum of inverter operation modes. The operation spectrum includes grid-forming (GFM), grid-following (GFL), static synchronous compensator…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-10-14 Alireza Askarian , Jaesang Park , Srinivasa Salapaka

This paper presents an extensive framework focused on the control design, along with stability and performance analysis, of Grid-Following Inverters (GFL). It aims to ensure their effective operation under both stiff and weak grid…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-01-26 Alireza Askarian , Jaesang Park , Srinivasa Salapaka

Hybrid microgrids integrating Grid-Following (GFL) and Grid-Forming (GFM) inverters present complex control challenges arising from the decoupling between long-term economic dispatch and real-time dynamic regulation, as well as the distinct…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2026-01-21 Lifu Ding , Chunhui Hou , Yutong Li , Qinmin Yang

This paper studies control interactions between grid-forming (GFM) converters exhibited by power and frequency oscillations in a weakly connected offshore wind power plant (WPP). Two GFM controls are considered, namely virtual synchronous…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-11-15 Sulav Ghimire , Kanakesh V. Kkuni , Gabriel M. G. Guerreiro , Emerson D. Guest , Kim H. Jensen , Guangya Yang

Under asymmetrical faults, analyzing the transient stability of grid-forming voltage-source converters (GFM-VSCs) becomes essential because their behavior fundamentally differs from that under symmetrical faults. When current limiting is…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-11-20 Seongyeon Kim , Ki-Hyun Kim , Shenghui Cui , Jae-Jung Jung

Integrating grid-forming converters (GFMCs) into grid-following converter (GFLC)-dominated power systems enhances the grid strength, but GFMCs' current-limiting characteristic triggers dynamic switching between constant voltage control…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2026-04-22 Bingfang Li , Songhao Yang , Pu Cheng , Zhiguo Hao

This paper focuses on the challenging task of bottom-up restoration in a complete blackout system using Grid-forming (GFM) converters. Challenges arise due to the limited current capability of power converters, resulting in distinct dynamic…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-05-27 Zexian Zeng , Prajwal Bhagwat , Maryam Saeedifard , Dominic Groß

HVDC-connected offshore wind power plants (OWPPs) are expected to provide inertial response and frequency containment reserve (FCR) to help address the frequency control challenges caused by the growing penetration of power electronics in…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-10-21 Zhenghua Xu , Dominic Gross , George Alin Raducu , Hesam Khazraj , Nicolaos A. Cutululis

This paper investigates how grid-forming (GFM) and grid-following (GFL) control strategies in inverter-based resources (IBRs) influence line distance and differential protection in converter-dominated transmission systems. A modified IEEE…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-11-27 Andrés E. Quintero , Vinícius A. Lacerda , Oriol Gomis-Bellmunt , Moisés J. B. B. Davi , Mario Oleskovicz