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Although Foundation Models (FMs), such as GPT-4, are increasingly used in domains like finance and software engineering, reliance on textual interfaces limits these models' real-world interaction. To address this, FM providers introduced a…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Mohammed Mehedi Hasan , Hao Li , Emad Fallahzadeh , Gopi Krishnan Rajbahadur , Bram Adams , Ahmed E. Hassan

The rapid adoption of foundation models has significantly expanded the capabilities of software systems, enabling them to perform complex language, reasoning, and interaction tasks that were previously difficult to automate. However, this…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-03-09 Mina Taraghi , Mohammad Mehdi Morovati , Foutse Khomh

Model Context Protocol (MCP) servers have rapidly emerged over the past year as a widely adopted way to enable Large Language Model (LLM) agents to access dynamic, real-world tools. As MCP servers proliferate and become easy to adopt via…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-12 Pratyay Kumar , Miguel Antonio Guirao Aguilera , Srikathyayani Srikanteswara , Satyajayant Misra , Abu Saleh Md Tayeen

Model Context Protocol (MCP) is increasingly adopted for tool-integrated LLM agents, but its multi-layer design and third-party server ecosystem expand risks across tool metadata, untrusted outputs, cross-tool flows, multimodal inputs, and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-24 Run Hao , Zhuoran Tan

To reduce development overhead and enable seamless integration between potential components comprising any given generative AI application, the Model Context Protocol (MCP) (Anthropic, 2024) has recently been released and subsequently…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-04-14 Brandon Radosevich , John Halloran

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) replaces static, developer-controlled API integrations with more dynamic, user-driven agent systems, which also introduces new security risks. As MCP adoption grows across community servers and major…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-11-27 Herman Errico , Jiquan Ngiam , Shanita Sojan

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as the de facto standard for connecting Large Language Models (LLMs) to external data and tools, effectively functioning as the "USB-C for Agentic AI." While this decoupling of context and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-16 Shiva Gaire , Srijan Gyawali , Saroj Mishra , Suman Niroula , Dilip Thakur , Umesh Yadav

By providing a standardized interface for LLM agents to interact with external tools, the Model Context Protocol (MCP) is quickly becoming a cornerstone of the modern autonomous agent ecosystem. However, it creates novel attack surfaces due…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-08-22 Zhiqiang Wang , Yichao Gao , Yanting Wang , Suyuan Liu , Haifeng Sun , Haoran Cheng , Guanquan Shi , Haohua Du , Xiangyang Li

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is a recently proposed interoperability standard that unifies how AI agents connect with external tools and data sources. By defining a set of common client-server message exchange clauses, MCP replaces…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-12 Nanzi Yang , Weiheng Bai , Kangjie Lu

To standardize interactions between LLM-based agents and their environments, the Model Context Protocol (MCP) was proposed and has since been widely adopted. However, integrating external tools expands the attack surface, exposing agents to…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Ruiqi Li , Zhiqiang Wang , Yunhao Yao , Xiang-Yang Li

Large language models(LLMs) are increasingly integrated with external systems through the Model Context Protocol(MCP),which standardizes tool invocation and has rapidly become a backbone for LLM-powered applications. While this paradigm…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Shuli Zhao , Qinsheng Hou , Zihan Zhan , Yanhao Wang , Yuchong Xie , Yu Guo , Libo Chen , Shenghong Li , Zhi Xue

The Model Context Protocol has emerged as a transformative standard for connecting large language models to external data sources and tools, rapidly gaining adoption across major AI providers and development platforms. However, existing…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-08-21 Ziyang Luo , Zhiqi Shen , Wenzhuo Yang , Zirui Zhao , Prathyusha Jwalapuram , Amrita Saha , Doyen Sahoo , Silvio Savarese , Caiming Xiong , Junnan Li

Large Language Models (LLMs) demonstrate strong capabilities in solving complex tasks when integrated with external tools. The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has become a standard interface for enabling such tool-based interactions. However,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-23 Jiayi Fu , Yuansen Zhang , Yinggui Wang

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is emerging as a standard interface through which large language model (LLM) agents discover and invoke external tools. However, existing MCP evaluations fall short along three key axes: realistic multi-step…

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is rapidly emerging as the middleware for LLM-based applications, offering a standardized interface for tool integration. However, its built-in security mechanisms are minimal: while schemas and declarations…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-04 Biwei Yan , Yue Zhang , Minghui Xu , Hao Wu , Yechao Zhang , Kun Li , Guoming Zhang , Xiuzhen Cheng

Model Context Protocols (MCPs) provide a unified platform for agent systems to discover, select, and orchestrate tools across heterogeneous execution environments. As MCP-based systems scale to incorporate larger tool catalogs and multiple…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-19 Yuval Felendler , Parth A. Gandhi , Idan Habler , Yuval Elovici , Asaf Shabtai

Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as a standard interface for connecting LLM agents to external tools. Because MCP servers expose privileged operations such as shell execution, network access, and file-system manipulation to…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-21 Pengyu Sun , Qishu Jin , Enhao Huang , Zifeng Kang , Xin Liu , Dakun Shen , Song Li

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly augmented with external tools through standardized interfaces like the Model Context Protocol (MCP). However, current MCP implementations face critical limitations: they typically require local…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-11 Arash Ahmadi , Sarah Sharif , Yaser M. Banad

Model Context Protocol (MCP) is a rapidly adopted standard for defining and invoking external tools in LLM applications. The multi-layered architecture of MCP introduces new attack surfaces such as tool poisoning, in addition to traditional…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-21 İpek Abasıkeleş Turgut , Edip Gümüş

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has been proposed as a unifying standard for connecting large language models (LLMs) with external tools and resources, promising the same role for AI integration that HTTP and USB played for the Web and…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2025-11-18 Hechuan Guo , Yongle Hao , Yue Zhang , Minghui Xu , Peizhuo Lv , Jiezhi Chen , Xiuzhen Cheng