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The linear cross-entropy benchmark (Linear XEB) has been used as a test for procedures simulating quantum circuits. Given a quantum circuit $C$ with $n$ inputs and outputs and purported simulator whose output is distributed according to a…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-05-07 Boaz Barak , Chi-Ning Chou , Xun Gao

Linear cross-entropy benchmarking (LXEB) with random quantum circuits is a standard method for evaluating quantum computers. However, LXEB requires classically simulating the ideal output distribution of a given quantum circuit with high…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-07-24 Takumi Kaneda , Keisuke Fujii , Hiroshi Ueda

Demonstrating quantum advantage requires experimental implementation of a computational task that is hard to achieve using state-of-the-art classical systems. One approach is to perform sampling from a probability distribution associated…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-05-03 Xun Gao , Marcin Kalinowski , Chi-Ning Chou , Mikhail D. Lukin , Boaz Barak , Soonwon Choi

We present universal properties of anticoncentration in weakly noisy quantum circuits at finite depth. We develop a generic framework for single- and multi-qubit noise channels in the weak-noise limit and introduce an effective description…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-24 Arman Sauliere , Guglielmo Lami , Corentin Boyer , Jacopo De Nardis , Andrea De Luca

Demonstrations of quantum computational advantage and benchmarks of quantum processors via quantum random circuit sampling are based on evaluating the linear cross-entropy benchmark (XEB). A key question in the theory of XEB is whether it…

With the advent of quantum processors exceeding $100$ qubits and the high engineering complexities involved, there is a need for holistically benchmarking the processor to have quality assurance. Linear cross-entropy benchmarking (XEB) has…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-11-11 Jianxin Chen , Dawei Ding , Cupjin Huang , Linghang Kong

While many statistical properties of deep random quantum circuits can be deduced, often rigorously and other times heuristically, by an approximation to global Haar-random unitaries, the statistics of constant-depth random quantum circuits…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-11-08 Gregory Bentsen , Bill Fefferman , Soumik Ghosh , Michael J. Gullans , Yinchen Liu

Recently, Google announced the first demonstration of quantum computational supremacy with a programmable superconducting processor. Their demonstration is based on collecting samples from the output distribution of a noisy random quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-02-07 Scott Aaronson , Sam Gunn

Cross-entropy benchmarking is a central technique used to certify a quantum chip in recent experiments. To better understand its mathematical foundation and develop new benchmarking schemes, we introduce the concept of ergodicity to random…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-02-14 Bin Cheng , Fei Meng , Zhi-Jiong Zhang , Man-Hong Yung

Undesired coupling to the surrounding environment destroys long-range correlations on quantum processors and hinders the coherent evolution in the nominally available computational space. This incoherent noise is an outstanding challenge to…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-11-07 A. Morvan , B. Villalonga , X. Mi , S. Mandrà , A. Bengtsson , P. V. Klimov , Z. Chen , S. Hong , C. Erickson , I. K. Drozdov , J. Chau , G. Laun , R. Movassagh , A. Asfaw , L. T. A. N. Brandão , R. Peralta , D. Abanin , R. Acharya , R. Allen , T. I. Andersen , K. Anderson , M. Ansmann , F. Arute , K. Arya , J. Atalaya , J. C. Bardin , A. Bilmes , G. Bortoli , A. Bourassa , J. Bovaird , L. Brill , M. Broughton , B. B. Buckley , D. A. Buell , T. Burger , B. Burkett , N. Bushnell , J. Campero , H. S. Chang , B. Chiaro , D. Chik , C. Chou , J. Cogan , R. Collins , P. Conner , W. Courtney , A. L. Crook , B. Curtin , D. M. Debroy , A. Del Toro Barba , S. Demura , A. Di Paolo , A. Dunsworth , L. Faoro , E. Farhi , R. Fatemi , V. S. Ferreira , L. Flores Burgos , E. Forati , A. G. Fowler , B. Foxen , G. Garcia , E. Genois , W. Giang , C. Gidney , D. Gilboa , M. Giustina , R. Gosula , A. Grajales Dau , J. A. Gross , S. Habegger , M. C. Hamilton , M. Hansen , M. P. Harrigan , S. D. Harrington , P. Heu , M. R. Hoffmann , T. Huang , A. Huff , W. J. Huggins , L. B. Ioffe , S. V. Isakov , J. Iveland , E. Jeffrey , Z. Jiang , C. Jones , P. Juhas , D. Kafri , T. Khattar , M. Khezri , M. Kieferová , S. Kim , A. Kitaev , A. R. Klots , A. N. Korotkov , F. Kostritsa , J. M. Kreikebaum , D. Landhuis , P. Laptev , K. -M. Lau , L. Laws , J. Lee , K. W. Lee , Y. D. Lensky , B. J. Lester , A. T. Lill , W. Liu , W. P. Livingston , A. Locharla , F. D. Malone , O. Martin , S. Martin , J. R. McClean , M. McEwen , K. C. Miao , A. Mieszala , S. Montazeri , W. Mruczkiewicz , O. Naaman , M. Neeley , C. Neill , A. Nersisyan , M. Newman , J. H. Ng , A. Nguyen , M. Nguyen , M. Yuezhen Niu , T. E. O'Brien , S. Omonije , A. Opremcak , A. Petukhov , R. Potter , L. P. Pryadko , C. Quintana , D. M. Rhodes , E. Rosenberg , C. Rocque , P. Roushan , N. C. Rubin , N. Saei , D. Sank , K. Sankaragomathi , K. J. Satzinger , H. F. Schurkus , C. Schuster , M. J. Shearn , A. Shorter , N. Shutty , V. Shvarts , V. Sivak , J. Skruzny , W. C. Smith , R. D. Somma , G. Sterling , D. Strain , M. Szalay , D. Thor , A. Torres , G. Vidal , C. Vollgraff Heidweiller , T. White , B. W. K. Woo , C. Xing , Z. J. Yao , P. Yeh , J. Yoo , G. Young , A. Zalcman , Y. Zhang , N. Zhu , N. Zobrist , E. G. Rieffel , R. Biswas , R. Babbush , D. Bacon , J. Hilton , E. Lucero , H. Neven , A. Megrant , J. Kelly , I. Aleiner , V. Smelyanskiy , K. Kechedzhi , Y. Chen , S. Boixo

It has been known for almost 30 years that quantum circuits with interspersed depolarizing noise converge to the uniform distribution at $\omega(\log n)$ depth, where $n$ is the number of qubits, making them classically simulable. We show…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-10-09 Jon Nelson , Joel Rajakumar , Michael J. Gullans

In this work, we study the task of encoding logical information via a noisy quantum circuit. It is known that at superlogarithmic depth, the output of any noisy circuit without reset gates or intermediate measurements becomes…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-10-10 Jon Nelson , Joel Rajakumar , Michael J. Gullans

Near term quantum computers with a high quantity (around 50) and quality (around 0.995 fidelity for two-qubit gates) of qubits will approximately sample from certain probability distributions beyond the capabilities of known classical…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-01-23 Sergio Boixo , Sergei V. Isakov , Vadim N. Smelyanskiy , Hartmut Neven

Random quantum circuits have played a central role in establishing the computational advantages of near-term quantum computers over their conventional counterparts. Here, we use ensembles of low-depth random circuits with local connectivity…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-09-29 Michael J. Gullans , Stefan Krastanov , David A. Huse , Liang Jiang , Steven T. Flammia

The computational advantage of noisy quantum computers has been demonstrated by sampling the bitstrings of quantum random circuits. An important issue is how the performance of quantum devices could be quantified in the so-called "supremacy…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-05-20 Gleb Kalachev , Pavel Panteleev , Man-Hong Yung

Sampling from the output distribution of chaotic quantum evolutions, and of pseudo-random universal quantum circuits in particular, has been proposed as a prominent milestone for near-term quantum supremacy. The same paper notes that…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2017-08-08 Sergio Boixo , Vadim N. Smelyanskiy , Hartmut Neven

We propose an application for near-term quantum devices: namely, generating cryptographically certified random bits, to use (for example) in proof-of-stake cryptocurrencies. Our protocol repurposes the existing "quantum supremacy"…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-03-06 Scott Aaronson , Shih-Han Hung

We provide and experimentally demonstrate an accreditation protocol that upper-bounds the variation distance between noisy and noiseless probability distributions of the outputs of arbitrary quantum computations. We accredit the outputs of…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-10-13 Samuele Ferracin , Seth T. Merkel , David McKay , Animesh Datta

Random circuit sampling (RCS) remains one of the most competitive frameworks for demonstrating quantum advantage in near-term noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) hardware. Unfortunately, absent error-correction, existing benchmarks to…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-25 Gregory Bentsen , Bill Fefferman , Soumik Ghosh , Michael J. Gullans , Yinchen Liu

Estimating the entropy of probability distributions and quantum states is a fundamental task in information processing. Here, we examine the hardness of this task for the case of probability distributions or quantum states produced by…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-08-12 Alexandru Gheorghiu , Matty J. Hoban
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