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To standardize interactions between LLM-based agents and their environments, the Model Context Protocol (MCP) was proposed and has since been widely adopted. However, integrating external tools expands the attack surface, exposing agents to…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Ruiqi Li , Zhiqiang Wang , Yunhao Yao , Xiang-Yang Li

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as a universal standard that enables AI agents to seamlessly connect with external tools, significantly enhancing their functionality. However, while MCP brings notable benefits, it also…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Yongjian Guo , Puzhuo Liu , Wanlun Ma , Zehang Deng , Xiaogang Zhu , Peng Di , Xi Xiao , Sheng Wen

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) standardizes how a large-language-model (LLM) agent and an external tool server exchange messages, but not trust: a host reads a server's self-declared tool list and dispatches calls, with no notion of which…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Alfredo Metere

LLM agents are beginning to invoke industrial asset-management tools through the Model Context Protocol (MCP), yet whether they can act reliably on this substrate for safety-critical \emph{Prognostics and Health Management (PHM)} is…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Tianjun Feng , Yunfeng Chen , Chun-Yi Tsai , Yihan Sun , Ayan Das , Kaoutar El Maghraoui , Shuxin Lin , Dhaval Patel

The Model Context Protocol has emerged as a transformative standard for connecting large language models to external data sources and tools, rapidly gaining adoption across major AI providers and development platforms. However, existing…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-08-21 Ziyang Luo , Zhiqi Shen , Wenzhuo Yang , Zirui Zhao , Prathyusha Jwalapuram , Amrita Saha , Doyen Sahoo , Silvio Savarese , Caiming Xiong , Junnan Li

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is a recently proposed interoperability standard that unifies how AI agents connect with external tools and data sources. By defining a set of common client-server message exchange clauses, MCP replaces…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-12 Nanzi Yang , Weiheng Bai , Kangjie Lu

Large language model (LLM)-based AI agents extend LLM capabilities by enabling access to tools such as data sources, APIs, search engines, code sandboxes, and even other agents. While this empowers agents to perform complex tasks, LLMs may…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-01-14 Aarya Doshi , Yining Hong , Congying Xu , Eunsuk Kang , Alexandros Kapravelos , Christian Kästner

As AI agents powered by large language models (LLMs) increasingly use external tools for high-stakes decisions, a critical reliability question arises: how do errors propagate across sequential tool calls? We introduce the first theoretical…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Flint Xiaofeng Fan , Cheston Tan , Roger Wattenhofer , Yew-Soon Ong

The development of large language models (LLMs) has entered in a experience-driven era, flagged by the emergence of environment feedback-driven learning via reinforcement learning and tool-using agents. This encourages the emergenece of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-17 Junfeng Fang , Zijun Yao , Ruipeng Wang , Haokai Ma , Xiang Wang , Tat-Seng Chua

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is a new and emerging technology that extends the functionality of large language models, improving workflows but also exposing users to a new attack surface. Several studies have highlighted related…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Tobias Mattsson , Samuel Nyberg , Anton Borg , Ricardo Britto

Model Context Protocol (MCP) servers contain a collection of thousands of open-source standardized tools, linking LLMs to external systems; however, existing datasets and benchmarks lack realistic, human-like user queries, remaining a…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-03-02 Shubh Laddha , Lucas Changbencharoen , Win Kuptivej , Surya Shringla , Archana Vaidheeswaran , Yash Bhaskar

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is an emerging open standard that defines a unified, bi-directional communication and dynamic discovery protocol between AI models and external tools or resources, aiming to enhance interoperability and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-08 Xinyi Hou , Yanjie Zhao , Shenao Wang , Haoyu Wang

MCP standardizes how LLMs interact with external systems, forming the foundation for general agents. However, existing MCP benchmarks remain narrow in scope: they focus on read-heavy tasks or tasks with limited interaction depth, and fail…

Multi-agent systems represent a significant advancement in artificial intelligence, enabling complex problem-solving through coordinated specialized agents. However, these systems face fundamental challenges in context management,…

Multiagent Systems · Computer Science 2025-05-01 Naveen Krishnan

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is an emerging standard designed to enable seamless interaction between Large Language Model (LLM) applications and external tools or resources. Within a short period, thousands of MCP services have been…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Hao Song , Yiming Shen , Wenxuan Luo , Leixin Guo , Ting Chen , Jiashui Wang , Beibei Li , Xiaosong Zhang , Jiachi Chen

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) enables large language models (LLMs) to dynamically discover and invoke third-party tools, significantly expanding agent capabilities while introducing a distinct security landscape. Unlike prompt-only…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-10 Mehrdad Rostamzadeh , Sidhant Narula , Nahom Birhan , Mohammad Ghasemigol , Daniel Takabi

The growing adoption of AI agents and the Model Context Protocol (MCP) has motivated organizations to expose existing REST APIs as agent-consumable tools. In our industrial context, this initiative targeted an ecosystem of 16 production…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-15 Rayfran Rocha Lima , Davi G. Assunção Pinheiro , Thiago Medeiros de Menezes

Explicit modeling of capabilities and skills -- whether based on ontologies, Asset Administration Shells, or other technologies -- requires considerable manual effort and often results in representations that are not easily accessible to…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-12-10 Luis Miguel Vieira da Silva , Aljosha Köcher , Felix Gehlhoff

By providing a standardized interface for LLM agents to interact with external tools, the Model Context Protocol (MCP) is quickly becoming a cornerstone of the modern autonomous agent ecosystem. However, it creates novel attack surfaces due…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-08-22 Zhiqiang Wang , Yichao Gao , Yanting Wang , Suyuan Liu , Haifeng Sun , Haoran Cheng , Guanquan Shi , Haohua Du , Xiangyang Li

Computer-use agents that combine GUI interaction with structured API calls via the Model Context Protocol (MCP) show promise for automating software tasks. However, existing approaches lack a principled understanding of how agents should…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Tiantian He , Yihang Chen , Keyue Jiang , Ka Yiu Lee , Kaiwen Zhou , Kun Shao , Shuai Wang