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This paper shows that a long chain of perceptrons (that is, a multilayer perceptron, or MLP, with many hidden layers of width one) can be a universal classifier. The classification procedure is not necessarily computationally efficient, but…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2017-07-11 Raul Rojas

Universal approximation theory offers a foundational framework to verify neural network expressiveness, enabling principled utilization in real-world applications. However, most existing theoretical constructions are established by…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-27 ZeYu Li , ShiJun Zhang , TieYong Zeng , FengLei Fan

Universal approximation theorems provide a mathematical explanation for the expressive power of neural networks. They assert that, under mild conditions on the activation function, feedforward neural networks are dense in broad function…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-21 Soumendu Sundar Mukherjee , Himasish Talukdar

We give a geometric construction of neural networks that separate disjoint compact subsets of $\Bbb R^n$, and use it to obtain a constructive universal approximation theorem. Specifically, we show that networks with two hidden layers and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-16 Chanyoung Sung

In this paper, we explain the universal approximation capabilities of deep residual neural networks through geometric nonlinear control. Inspired by recent work establishing links between residual networks and control systems, we provide a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-12 Paulo Tabuada , Bahman Gharesifard

We show that deep narrow Boltzmann machines are universal approximators of probability distributions on the activities of their visible units, provided they have sufficiently many hidden layers, each containing the same number of units as…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2015-04-13 Guido Montufar

The universal approximation property of various machine learning models is currently only understood on a case-by-case basis, limiting the rapid development of new theoretically justified neural network architectures and blurring our…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2020-12-01 Anastasis Kratsios

We study feedforward neural networks with inputs from a topological space (TFNNs). We prove a universal approximation theorem for shallow TFNNs, which demonstrates their capacity to approximate any continuous function defined on this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-23 Vugar Ismailov

One of the most influential results in neural network theory is the universal approximation theorem [1, 2, 3] which states that continuous functions can be approximated to within arbitrary accuracy by single-hidden-layer feedforward neural…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-16 Clemens Hutter , Recep Gül , Helmut Bölcskei

In this short note, we give an elementary proof of a universal approximation theorem for neural networks with three hidden layers and increasing, continuous, bounded activation function. The result is weaker than the best known results, but…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-24 Chris Monico

We algorithmically construct a two hidden layer feedforward neural network (TLFN) model with the weights fixed as the unit coordinate vectors of the $d$-dimensional Euclidean space and having $3d+2$ number of hidden neurons in total, which…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2021-01-25 Namig J. Guliyev , Vugar E. Ismailov

Feed-forward, fully-connected Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) or the so-called Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs) are well-known universal approximators. However, their learning performance varies significantly depending on the function or…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-10-21 Serkan Kiranyaz , Turker Ince , Alexandros Iosifidis , Moncef Gabbouj

Deep learning architectures are highly diverse. To prove their universal approximation properties, existing works typically rely on model-specific proofs. Generally, they construct a dedicated mathematical formulation for each architecture…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-12 Wei Wang

We propose a testable universality hypothesis, asserting that seemingly disparate neural network solutions observed in the simple task of modular addition are unified under a common abstract algorithm. While prior work interpreted…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-27 Gavin McCracken , Gabriela Moisescu-Pareja , Vincent Letourneau , Doina Precup , Jonathan Love

This paper addresses the growing need to process non-Euclidean data, by introducing a geometric deep learning (GDL) framework for building universal feedforward-type models compatible with differentiable manifold geometries. We show that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-07-26 Anastasis Kratsios , Leonie Papon

This paper develops simple feed-forward neural networks that achieve the universal approximation property for all continuous functions with a fixed finite number of neurons. These neural networks are simple because they are designed with a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-10 Zuowei Shen , Haizhao Yang , Shijun Zhang

The classical Universal Approximation Theorem holds for neural networks of arbitrary width and bounded depth. Here we consider the natural `dual' scenario for networks of bounded width and arbitrary depth. Precisely, let $n$ be the number…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-06-09 Patrick Kidger , Terry Lyons

We study shallow and deep neural networks whose inputs range over a general topological space. The model is built from a prescribed family of continuous feature maps and reduces to multilayer feedforward networks in the Euclidean case. We…

General Topology · Mathematics 2026-03-24 Vugar Ismailov

As function approximators, deep neural networks have served as an effective tool to represent various signal types. Recent approaches utilize multi-layer perceptrons (MLPs) to learn a nonlinear mapping from a coordinate to its corresponding…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-12 Woojin Cho , Minju Jo , Kookjin Lee , Noseong Park

Neural networks (NNs) are known for their high predictive accuracy in complex learning problems. Beside practical advantages, NNs also indicate favourable theoretical properties such as universal approximation (UA) theorems. Binarized…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-05 Mikail Yayla , Mario Günzel , Burim Ramosaj , Jian-Jia Chen