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Third-party Large Language Model (LLM) API gateways are rapidly emerging as unified access points to models offered by multiple vendors. However, the internal routing, caching, and billing policies of these gateways are largely undisclosed,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-24 Guanjie Lin , Yinxin Wan , Shichao Pei , Ting Xu , Kuai Xu , Guoliang Xue

Predicting the performance of LLMs on individual task instances is essential to ensure their reliability in high-stakes applications. To do so, a possibility is to evaluate the considered LLM on a set of task instances and train an assessor…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-09-06 Lorenzo Pacchiardi , Lucy G. Cheke , José Hernández-Orallo

Financial sentiment analysis plays a crucial role in uncovering latent patterns and detecting emerging trends, enabling individuals to make well-informed decisions that may yield substantial advantages within the constantly changing realm…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-15 Sorouralsadat Fatemi , Yuheng Hu

Large language models (LLMs) inference is both expensive and slow. Local caching of responses offers a practical solution to reduce the cost and latency of LLM queries. In research contexts, caching also enhances reproducibility and…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-12-01 Yihan Dai , Dimitrios Stamatios Bouras , Haoxiang Jia , Sergey Mechtaev

Serendipity plays a pivotal role in enhancing user satisfaction within recommender systems, yet its evaluation poses significant challenges due to its inherently subjective nature and conceptual ambiguity. Current algorithmic approaches…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-07-24 Li Kang , Yuhan Zhao , Li Chen

As LLMs are increasingly integrated into human-in-the-loop content moderation systems, a central challenge is deciding when their outputs can be trusted versus when escalation for human review is preferable. We propose a novel framework for…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Or Bachar , Or Levi , Sardhendu Mishra , Adi Levi , Manpreet Singh Minhas , Justin Miller , Omer Ben-Porat , Eilon Sheetrit , Jonathan Morra

Evaluating Large Language Models (LLMs) is one of the most critical aspects of building a performant compound AI system. Since the output from LLMs propagate to downstream steps, identifying LLM errors is crucial to system performance. A…

Many existing evaluation benchmarks for Large Language Models (LLMs) quickly become outdated due to the emergence of new models and training data. These benchmarks also fall short in assessing how LLM performance changes over time, as they…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-09 Hui Dai , Ryan Teehan , Mengye Ren

Automated logging statement generation supports developers in documenting critical software runtime behavior. Given the great success in natural language generation and programming language comprehension, large language models (LLMs) might…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-04-02 Yichen Li , Yintong Huo , Zhihan Jiang , Renyi Zhong , Pinjia He , Yuxin Su , Lionel Briand , Michael R. Lyu

How reliably can a small language model estimate its own correctness? The answer determines whether local-to-cloud routing-escalating queries a cheap local model cannot handle-can work without supervised training data. As inference costs…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-08 Luong N. Nguyen

The widespread adoption of web applications has made their security a critical concern and has increased the need for systematic ways to assess whether they can be considered trustworthy. However, "trust" assessment remains an open problem…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-26 Oleksandr Yarotskyi , José D'Abruzzo Pereira , João R. Campos

Large language models (LLMs) are widely used as zero-shot and few-shot classifiers, where task behaviour is largely controlled through prompting. A growing number of works have observed that LLMs are sensitive to prompt variations, with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-05 Branislav Pecher , Michal Spiegel , Robert Belanec , Jan Cegin

While Large Language Models (LLMs) have exhibited remarkable emergent capabilities through extensive pre-training, they still face critical limitations in generalizing to specialized domains and handling diverse linguistic variations, known…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-28 Jinwu Hu , Zhitian Zhang , Guohao Chen , Xutao Wen , Chao Shuai , Wei Luo , Bin Xiao , Yuanqing Li , Mingkui Tan

Measuring innovation often relies on context-specific proxies and on expert evaluation. Hence, empirical innovation research is often limited to settings where such data is available. We investigate how large language models (LLMs) can be…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-05 Robin Nowak , Patrick Figge , Carolin Haeussler

Automatic log analysis is essential for the efficient Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of software systems, providing critical insights into system behaviors. However, existing approaches mostly treat log analysis as training a model to…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-01-10 Yilun Liu , Yuhe Ji , Shimin Tao , Minggui He , Weibin Meng , Shenglin Zhang , Yongqian Sun , Yuming Xie , Boxing Chen , Hao Yang

Nowadays both commercial and open-source academic LLM have become the mainstream models of NLP. However, there is still a lack of research on LLM consistency, meaning that throughout the various stages of LLM research and deployment, its…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Fufangchen Zhao , Guoqiang Jin , Jiaheng Huang , Rui Zhao , Fei Tan

Context: Study screening in systematic literature reviews is costly, inconsistency-prone, and risk-asymmetric, since false negatives can compromise validity. Despite rapid uptake of Large Language Models (LLMs), there is limited evidence on…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-01 Gilberto Sussumu Hida , Danilo Monteiro Ribeiro , Erika Yahata

Large language models (LLMs) for code are increasingly used in software development, but they remain static after pretraining while APIs and software libraries continue to evolve. Model editing offers a lightweight alternative to retraining…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Vinaik Chhetri , Moghis Fereidouni , A. B Siddique , Umar Farooq

Over the past few years, Large Language Models (LLMs) have developed rapidly and are widely applied in various domains. However, LLMs face the issue of hallucinations, generating responses that may be unreliable when the models lack…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-12 Huan Ma , Jingdong Chen , Joey Tianyi Zhou , Guangyu Wang , Changqing Zhang

Deploying LLMs raises two coupled challenges: (1) monitoring--estimating where a model underperforms as traffic and domains drift--and (2) improvement--prioritizing data acquisition to close the largest performance gaps. We test whether an…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-27 Pedro Memoli Buffa , Luciano Del Corro