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Trust and credibility in machine learning models is bolstered by the ability of a model to explain itsdecisions. While explainability of deep learning models is a well-known challenge, a further chal-lenge is clarity of the explanation…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-11-30 hsan Ullah , Andre Rios , Vaibhav Gala , Susan Mckeever

Feature importance estimates that inform users about the degree to which given inputs influence the output of a predictive model are crucial for understanding, validating, and interpreting machine-learning models. However, providing fast…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-10-29 Patrick Schwab , Walter Karlen

Pretrained Large Language Models (LLMs) achieve strong performance across a wide range of tasks, yet exhibit substantial variability in the various layers' training quality with respect to specific downstream applications, limiting their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-27 Hadi Askari , Shivanshu Gupta , Fei Wang , Anshuman Chhabra , Muhao Chen

The imminent need to interpret the output of a Machine Learning model with counterfactual (CF) explanations - via small perturbations to the input - has been notable in the research community. Although the variety of CF examples is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-23 Kleopatra Markou , Dimitrios Tomaras , Vana Kalogeraki , Dimitrios Gunopulos

Counterfactual explanations can be obtained by identifying the smallest change made to a feature vector to qualitatively influence a prediction; for example, from 'loan rejected' to 'awarded' or from 'high risk of cardiovascular disease' to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-05-05 Martin Pawelczyk , Johannes Haug , Klaus Broelemann , Gjergji Kasneci

Existing image recognition techniques based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) basically assume that the training and test datasets are sampled from i.i.d distributions. However, this assumption is easily broken in the real world…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-03 Kazuki Adachi , Shin'ya Yamaguchi

Most accurate predictions are typically obtained by learning machines with complex feature spaces (as e.g. induced by kernels). Unfortunately, such decision rules are hardly accessible to humans and cannot easily be used to gain insights…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2010-08-13 Alexander Zien , Nicole Kraemer , Soeren Sonnenburg , Gunnar Raetsch

The growing integration of machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) models into high-stakes domains such as healthcare and scientific research calls for models that are not only accurate but also interpretable. Among the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-23 Zhuo Cao , Xuan Zhao , Lena Krieger , Hanno Scharr , Ira Assent

Recourse generators provide actionable insights, often through feature-based counterfactual explanations (CFEs), to help negatively classified individuals understand how to adjust their input features to achieve a positive classification.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-04 Keziah Naggita , Matthew R. Walter , Avrim Blum

Counterfactual explanation is an important Explainable AI technique to explain machine learning predictions. Despite being studied actively, existing optimization-based methods often assume that the underlying machine-learning model is…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2022-06-01 Wenzhuo Yang , Jia Li , Caiming Xiong , Steven C. H. Hoi

Counterfactual examples are minimal edits to an input that alter a model's prediction. They are widely employed in explainable AI to probe model behavior and in natural language processing (NLP) to augment training data. However, generating…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-06 Yilong Wang , Qianli Wang , Nils Feldhus

Attribution-based explanation techniques capture key patterns to enhance visual interpretability; however, these patterns often lack the granularity needed for insight in fine-grained tasks, particularly in cases of model misclassification,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-11-12 Lintong Zhang , Kang Yin , Seong-Whan Lee

As machine learning becomes increasingly integral to autonomous decision-making processes involving human interaction, the necessity of comprehending the model's outputs through conversational means increases. Most recently, foundation…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-07-31 Sule Tekkesinoglu , Lars Kunze

eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is a sub-field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) that is at the forefront of AI research. In XAI, feature attribution methods produce explanations in the form of feature importance. People often use…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2022-02-09 Jamie Duell , Monika Seisenberger , Gert Aarts , Shangming Zhou , Xiuyi Fan

While large language models (LLMs) are proficient at question-answering (QA), it is not always clear how (or even if) an answer follows from their latent "beliefs". This lack of interpretability is a growing impediment to widespread use of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-31 Nora Kassner , Oyvind Tafjord , Ashish Sabharwal , Kyle Richardson , Hinrich Schuetze , Peter Clark

While machine learning models have achieved unprecedented success in real-world applications, they might make biased/unfair decisions for specific demographic groups and hence result in discriminative outcomes. Although research efforts…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-12-08 Yuying Zhao , Yu Wang , Tyler Derr

The growing complexity of AI systems has intensified the need for transparency through Explainable AI (XAI). Counterfactual explanations (CFs) offer actionable "what-if" scenarios on three levels: Local CFs providing instance-specific…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Oleksii Furman , Patryk Wielopolski , Łukasz Lenkiewicz , Jerzy Stefanowski , Maciej Zięba

There is a broad consensus on the importance of deep learning models in tasks involving complex data. Often, an adequate understanding of these models is required when focusing on the transparency of decisions in human-critical…

Fairness in machine learning has attained significant focus due to the widespread application in high-stake decision-making tasks. Unregulated machine learning classifiers can exhibit bias towards certain demographic groups in data, thus…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-07-04 Bishwamittra Ghosh , Debabrota Basu , Kuldeep S. Meel

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is becoming increasingly essential for enhancing the transparency of machine learning (ML) models. Among the various XAI techniques, counterfactual explanations (CFs) hold a pivotal role due to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-29 Fatima Ezzeddine , Obaida Ammar , Silvia Giordano , Omran Ayoub