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With increasing interest in explaining machine learning (ML) models, the first part of this two-part study synthesizes recent research on methods for explaining global and local aspects of ML models. This study distinguishes explainability…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-11-17 Montgomery Flora , Corey Potvin , Amy McGovern , Shawn Handler

Deep learning models are widely used in traffic forecasting and have achieved state-of-the-art prediction accuracy. However, the black-box nature of those models makes the results difficult to interpret by users. This study aims to leverage…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-16 Rushan Wang , Yanan Xin , Yatao Zhang , Fernando Perez-Cruz , Martin Raubal

As the application of deep neural networks proliferates in numerous areas such as medical imaging, video surveillance, and self driving cars, the need for explaining the decisions of these models has become a hot research topic, both at the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-01 Ronny Luss , Pin-Yu Chen , Amit Dhurandhar , Prasanna Sattigeri , Yunfeng Zhang , Karthikeyan Shanmugam , Chun-Chen Tu

Counterfactual examples are widely used in natural language processing (NLP) as valuable data to improve models, and in explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) to understand model behavior. The automated generation of counterfactual…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-29 Qianli Wang , Nils Feldhus , Simon Ostermann , Luis Felipe Villa-Arenas , Sebastian Möller , Vera Schmitt

Learning about underlying patterns in data using latent unobserved structures to improve the accuracy of predictive models has become an active avenue of deep learning research. Most approaches cluster the original features to capture…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-09 Rishav Mukherjee , Jeffrey Ahearn Thompson

Counterfactual explanations are emerging as an attractive option for providing recourse to individuals adversely impacted by algorithmic decisions. As they are deployed in critical applications (e.g. law enforcement, financial lending), it…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-11-05 Dylan Slack , Sophie Hilgard , Himabindu Lakkaraju , Sameer Singh

Counterfactual explanations (CFs) provide human-interpretable insights into model's predictions by identifying minimal changes to input features that would alter the model's output. However, existing methods struggle to generate multiple…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-20 Oleksii Furman , Patryk Marszałek , Jan Masłowski , Piotr Gaiński , Maciej Zięba , Marek Śmieja

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) are an emerging technique under the umbrella of interpretability of machine learning (ML) models. They provide ``what if'' feedback of the form ``if an input datapoint were $x'$ instead of $x$, then an ML…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-16 Sahil Verma , John Dickerson , Keegan Hines

Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) has become increasingly important in decision-critical domains such as healthcare, finance, and law. Counterfactual (CF) explanations, a key approach in XAI, provide users with actionable insights…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-07-22 Volkan Bakir , Polat Goktas , Sureyya Akyuz

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) provide human-centric interpretability by identifying the minimal, actionable changes required to alter a machine learning model's prediction. Therefore, CFs can be used as (i) interventions for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Shovito Barua Soumma , Asiful Arefeen , Stephanie M. Carpenter , Melanie Hingle , Hassan Ghasemzadeh

Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is increasingly essential as AI systems are deployed in critical fields such as healthcare and finance, offering transparency into AI-driven decisions. Two major XAI paradigms, counterfactual…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-17 Jacob Sanderson , Hua Mao , Wai Lok Woo

Explainability has become a crucial concern in today's world, aiming to enhance transparency in machine learning and deep learning models. Information retrieval is no exception to this trend. In existing literature on explainability of…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-04-15 Bhavik Chandna , Procheta Sen

In order to ensure the reliability of the explanations of machine learning models, it is crucial to establish their advantages and limits and in which case each of these methods outperform. However, the current understanding of when and how…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-12 Célia Wafa Ayad , Thomas Bonnier , Benjamin Bosch , Sonali Parbhoo , Jesse Read

Widespread use of artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms and machine learning (ML) models on the one hand and a number of crucial issues pertaining to them warrant the need for explainable artificial intelligence (XAI). A key…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-12-13 Jinqiang Yu , Graham Farr , Alexey Ignatiev , Peter J. Stuckey

Counterfactual examples (CFs) are one of the most popular methods for attaching post-hoc explanations to machine learning (ML) models. However, existing CF generation methods either exploit the internals of specific models or depend on each…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-08-10 Ziheng Chen , Fabrizio Silvestri , Jia Wang , He Zhu , Hongshik Ahn , Gabriele Tolomei

In this work, we instantiate a novel perturbation-based multi-class explanation framework, LIPEx (Locally Interpretable Probabilistic Explanation). We demonstrate that LIPEx not only locally replicates the probability distributions output…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-08 Hongbo Zhu , Angelo Cangelosi , Procheta Sen , Anirbit Mukherjee

As deep learning models are increasingly used in safety-critical applications, explainability and trustworthiness become major concerns. For simple images, such as low-resolution face portraits, synthesizing visual counterfactual…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-20 Paul Jacob , Éloi Zablocki , Hédi Ben-Younes , Mickaël Chen , Patrick Pérez , Matthieu Cord

Current best performing models for knowledge graph reasoning (KGR) introduce geometry objects or probabilistic distributions to embed entities and first-order logical (FOL) queries into low-dimensional vector spaces. They can be summarized…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-04-21 Xueyuan Lin , Haihong E , Gengxian Zhou , Tianyi Hu , Li Ningyuan , Mingzhi Sun , Haoran Luo

Transparency is an essential requirement of machine learning based decision making systems that are deployed in real world. Often, transparency of a given system is achieved by providing explanations of the behavior and predictions of the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-18 André Artelt , Barbara Hammer

The explainability of machine learning algorithms is crucial, and numerous methods have emerged recently. Local, post-hoc methods assign an attribution score to each feature, indicating its importance for the prediction. However, these…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-12 Giorgio Visani , Vincenzo Stanzione , Damien Garreau