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Multiple instance learning (MIL) models have achieved remarkable success in analyzing whole slide images (WSIs) for disease classification problems. However, with regard to gigapixel WSI classification problems, current MIL models are often…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-14 Ziyu Su , Mostafa Rezapour , Usama Sajjad , Metin Nafi Gurcan , Muhammad Khalid Khan Niazi

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is the standard approach for whole-slide image (WSI) classification and survival prediction, where attention-based models ag gregate patch features into slide-level predictions. These models treat attention…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Xiangyu Li , Ran Su

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has become the leading approach for extracting discriminative features from whole slide images (WSIs) in computational pathology. Attention-based MIL methods can identify key patches but tend to overlook…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Lubin Gan , Xiaoman Wu , Jing Zhang , Zhifeng Wang , Linhao Qu , Siying Wu , Xiaoyan Sun

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a promising approach for weakly supervised classification in pathology using whole slide images (WSIs). However, conventional MIL methods such as Attention-Based Deep Multiple Instance Learning (ABMIL)…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-04-28 Hassan Keshvarikhojasteh , Mihail Tifrea , Sibylle Hess , Josien P. W. Pluim , Mitko Veta

Analyzing high resolution whole slide images (WSIs) with regard to information across multiple scales poses a significant challenge in digital pathology. Multi-instance learning (MIL) is a common solution for working with high resolution…

Whole slide images (WSIs) are gigapixel-scale digital images of H\&E-stained tissue samples widely used in pathology. The substantial size and complexity of WSIs pose unique analytical challenges. Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-20 Jun Wang , Yu Mao , Nan Guan , Chun Jason Xue

Oncologists often rely on a multitude of data, including whole-slide images (WSIs), to guide therapeutic decisions, aiming for the best patient outcome. However, predicting the prognosis of cancer patients can be a challenging task due to…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-04-01 M Rita Verdelho , Alexandre Bernardino , Catarina Barata

In the application of Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification, attention mechanisms often focus on a subset of discriminative instances, which are closely linked to overfitting. To mitigate…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-08 Yunlong Zhang , Honglin Li , Yuxuan Sun , Sunyi Zheng , Chenglu Zhu , Lin Yang

Various multi-instance learning (MIL) based approaches have been developed and successfully applied to whole-slide pathological images (WSI). Existing MIL methods emphasize the importance of feature aggregators, but largely neglect the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-05-13 Yicheng Song , Tiancheng Lin , Die Peng , Su Yang , Yi Xu

Fine-grained classification of whole slide images (WSIs) is essential in precision oncology, enabling precise cancer diagnosis and personalized treatment strategies. The core of this task involves distinguishing subtle morphological…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-04-07 Cheng Jin , Luyang Luo , Huangjing Lin , Jun Hou , Hao Chen

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods have succeeded remarkably in histopathology whole slide image (WSI) analysis. However, most MIL models only offer attention-based explanations that do not faithfully capture the model's decision…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-17 Susu Sun , Dominique van Midden , Geert Litjens , Christian F. Baumgartner

In histopathology, intelligent diagnosis of Whole Slide Images (WSIs) is essential for automating and objectifying diagnoses, reducing the workload of pathologists. However, diagnostic models often face the challenge of forgetting…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-26 Weixi Zheng , Aoling Huang , Jingping Yuan , Haoyu Zhao , Zhou Zhao , Yongchao Xu , Thierry Géraud

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is widely used in analyzing histopathological Whole Slide Images (WSIs). However, existing MIL methods do not explicitly model the data distribution, and instead they only learn a bag-level or instance-level…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-06-20 Linhao Qu , Xiaoyuan Luo , Shaolei Liu , Manning Wang , Zhijian Song

In computational pathology, weak supervision has become the standard for deep learning due to the gigapixel scale of WSIs and the scarcity of pixel-level annotations, with Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) established as the principal…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-17 Andreas Lolos , Theofilos Christodoulou , Aris L. Moustakas , Stergios Christodoulidis , Maria Vakalopoulou

Whole-slide image (WSI) classification in computational pathology is commonly formulated as slide-level Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) with a single global bag representation. However, slide-level MIL is fundamentally underconstrained:…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-04-15 Syed Fahim Ahmed , Gnanesh Rasineni , Florian Koehler , Abu Zahid Bin Aziz , Mei Wang , Attila Gyulassy , Brian Summa , J. Quincy Brown , Valerio Pascucci , Shireen Y. Elhabian

Introducing interpretability and reasoning into Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods for Whole Slide Image (WSI) analysis is challenging, given the complexity of gigapixel slides. Traditionally, MIL interpretability is limited to…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-21 Saarthak Kapse , Pushpak Pati , Srijan Das , Jingwei Zhang , Chao Chen , Maria Vakalopoulou , Joel Saltz , Dimitris Samaras , Rajarsi R. Gupta , Prateek Prasanna

Due to its superior efficiency in utilizing annotations and addressing gigapixel-sized images, multiple instance learning (MIL) has shown great promise as a framework for whole slide image (WSI) classification in digital pathology…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2023-07-14 Qiehe Sun , Jiawen Li , Jin Xu , Junru Cheng , Tian Guan , Yonghong He

Multiple instance learning (MIL) significantly reduced annotation costs via bag-level weak labels for large-scale images, such as histopathological whole slide images (WSIs). However, its adaptability to continual tasks with minimal…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-09 Byung Hyun Lee , Wongi Jeong , Woojae Han , Kyoungbun Lee , Se Young Chun

Multi-instance learning (MIL) deals with objects represented as bags of instances and can predict instance labels from bag-level supervision. However, significant performance gaps exist between instance-level MIL algorithms and supervised…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-06 Weijia Zhang , Xuanhui Zhang , Han-Wen Deng , Min-Ling Zhang

Although multiple instance learning (MIL) methods are widely used for automatic tumor detection on whole slide images (WSI), they suffer from the extreme class imbalance within the small tumor WSIs. This occurs when the tumor comprises only…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-09-19 Ziyu Su , Mostafa Rezapour , Usama Sajjad , Shuo Niu , Metin Nafi Gurcan , Muhammad Khalid Khan Niazi