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Medical coding is the task of assigning medical codes to clinical free-text documentation. Healthcare professionals manually assign such codes to track patient diagnoses and treatments. Automated medical coding can considerably alleviate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-04-24 Joakim Edin , Alexander Junge , Jakob D. Havtorn , Lasse Borgholt , Maria Maistro , Tuukka Ruotsalo , Lars Maaløe

Automatic medical coding has the potential to ease documentation and billing processes. For this task, transparency plays an important role for medical coders and regulatory bodies, which can be achieved using explainability methods.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-03 Katharina Beckh , Elisa Studeny , Sujan Sai Gannamaneni , Dario Antweiler , Stefan Rüping

ICD coding is designed to assign the disease codes to electronic health records (EHRs) upon discharge, which is crucial for billing and clinical statistics. In an attempt to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of manual coding, many…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-31 Zichen Liu , Xuyuan Liu , Yanlong Wen , Guoqing Zhao , Fen Xia , Xiaojie Yuan

We propose a novel and interpretable embedding method to represent the international statistical classification codes of diseases and related health problems (i.e., ICD codes). This method considers a self-attention mechanism within the…

Applications · Statistics 2019-06-14 Dixin Luo , Hongteng Xu , Lawrence Carin

The task of assigning diagnostic ICD codes to patient hospital admissions is typically performed by expert human coders. Efforts towards automated ICD coding are dominated by supervised deep learning models. However, difficulties in…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-11-14 Joseph S. Boyle , Antanas Kascenas , Pat Lok , Maria Liakata , Alison Q. O'Neil

Clinical coding is an administrative process that involves the translation of diagnostic data from episodes of care into a standard code format such as ICD10. It has many critical applications such as billing and aetiology research. The…

Medical coding is a complex task, requiring assignment of a subset of over 72,000 ICD codes to a patient's notes. Modern natural language processing approaches to these tasks have been challenged by the length of the input and size of the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-08-17 Jay DeYoung , Han-Chin Shing , Luyang Kong , Christopher Winestock , Chaitanya Shivade

Given the clinical notes written in electronic health records (EHRs), it is challenging to predict the diagnostic codes which is formulated as a multi-label classification task. The large set of labels, the hierarchical dependency, and the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-06-25 Shang-Chi Tsai , Chao-Wei Huang , Yun-Nung Chen

The linking of clinical entities is a crucial part of extracting structured information from clinical texts. It is the process of assigning a code from a medical ontology or classification to a phrase in the text. The International…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-08 Sylvia Vassileva , Ivan Koychev , Svetla Boytcheva

This study investigates the feasibility of automating clinical coding in Russian, a language with limited biomedical resources. We present a new dataset for ICD coding, which includes diagnosis fields from electronic health records (EHRs)…

Automated ICD coding involves assigning standardized diagnostic codes to clinical narratives. The vast label space and extreme class imbalance continue to challenge precise prediction. To address these issues, LabGraph is introduced -- a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Xiaoxiao Deng

Characterization of a patient clinical phenotype is central to biomedical informatics. ICD codes, assigned to inpatient encounters by coders, is important for population health and cohort discovery when clinical information is limited.…

Large language models (LLMs) excel at a range of tasks through in-context learning (ICL), where only a few task examples guide their predictions. However, prior research highlights that LLMs often overlook input-label mapping information in…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-10 Keqin Peng , Liang Ding , Yuanxin Ouyang , Meng Fang , Yancheng Yuan , Dacheng Tao

Medical coding translates professionally written medical reports into standardized codes, which is an essential part of medical information systems and health insurance reimbursement. Manual coding by trained human coders is time-consuming…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-09-27 Wei Sun , Shaoxiong Ji , Erik Cambria , Pekka Marttinen

Linking clinical narratives to standardized vocabularies and coding systems is a key component of unlocking the information in medical text for analysis. However, many domains of medical concepts lack well-developed terminologies that can…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-03-11 Denis Newman-Griffis , Eric Fosler-Lussier

Medical coding translates free-text clinical documentation into standardized codes drawn from classification systems that contain tens of thousands of entries and are updated annually. It is central to billing, clinical research, and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-01 Joakim Edin , Andreas Motzfeldt , Simon Flachs , Lars Maaløe

ICD-9 coding is a relevant clinical billing task, where unstructured texts with information about a patient's diagnosis and treatments are annotated with multiple ICD-9 codes. Automated ICD-9 coding is an active research field, where CNN-…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-09-27 Malte Feucht , Zhiliang Wu , Sophia Althammer , Volker Tresp

Image-Text Retrieval (ITR) is challenging in bridging visual and lingual modalities. Contrastive learning has been adopted by most prior arts. Except for limited amount of negative image-text pairs, the capability of constrastive learning…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-03-27 Haoran Wang , Dongliang He , Wenhao Wu , Boyang Xia , Min Yang , Fu Li , Yunlong Yu , Zhong Ji , Errui Ding , Jingdong Wang

Addressing the complexity of accurately classifying International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes from medical discharge summaries is challenging due to the intricate nature of medical documentation. This paper explores the use of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-11-12 Zeyd Boukhers , AmeerAli Khan , Qusai Ramadan , Cong Yang

Automated international classification of diseases (ICD) coding aims to assign multiple disease codes to clinical documents and plays a critical role in healthcare informatics. However, its performance is hindered by the extreme long-tail…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Tianlei Chen , Yuxiao Chen , Yang Li , Feifei Wang