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The growing disparity between the exponential scaling of computational resources and the finite growth of high-quality text data now constrains conventional scaling approaches for large language models (LLMs). To address this challenge, we…

Reinforcement learning from human or AI feedback (RLHF / RLAIF) has become the standard paradigm for aligning large language models (LLMs). However, most pipelines rely on a single reward model (RM), limiting alignment quality and risking…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-10-06 Xinle Wu , Yao Lu

Reinforcement learning has been applied in operation research and has shown promise in solving large combinatorial optimization problems. However, existing works focus on developing neural network architectures for certain problems. These…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2023-03-24 Ching Pui Wan , Tung Li , Jason Min Wang

The functionality of Large Language Model (LLM) agents is primarily determined by two capabilities: action planning and answer summarization. The former, action planning, is the core capability that dictates an agent's performance. However,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-08-28 Zhiwei Li , Yong Hu , Wenqing Wang

The inherent uncertainty in the environmental transition model of Reinforcement Learning (RL) necessitates a delicate balance between exploration and exploitation. This balance is crucial for optimizing computational resources to accurately…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-21 Yongxin Deng , Xihe Qiu , Jue Chen , Xiaoyu Tan

The proliferation of large language models (LLMs) with varying computational costs and performance profiles presents a critical challenge for scalable, cost-effective deployment in real-world applications. We introduce a unified routing…

As modern artificial intelligence (AI) systems become more advanced and capable, they can leverage a wide range of tools and models to perform complex tasks. The task of orchestrating these models is increasingly performed by Large Language…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-20 Daria Smirnova , Hamid Nasiri , Marta Adamska , Zhengxin Yu , Peter Garraghan

Large language model (LLM) query routers are critical to modern AI platforms as they seek to improve efficiency by assigning inference queries to accurate, yet low-cost models. Parametric routers typically use trained neural networks for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-14 Shivam Patel , Neharika Jali , Ankur Mallick , Gauri Joshi

The deployment of large language models (LLMs) in real-world applications is increasingly limited by their high inference cost. While recent advances in dynamic token-level computation allocation attempt to improve efficiency by selectively…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-17 Chao Han , Yijuan Liang , Zihao Xuan , Daokuan Wu , Wei Zhang , Xiaoyu Shen

LLMs with superior response quality--particularly larger or closed-source models--often come with higher inference costs, making their deployment inefficient and costly. Meanwhile, developing foundational LLMs from scratch is becoming…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-03 Alireza Mohammadshahi , Arshad Rafiq Shaikh , Majid Yazdani

The rapid proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to a fragmented and inefficient ecosystem, a state of ``model lock-in'' where seamlessly integrating novel models remains a significant bottleneck. Current routing frameworks…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Cheng Yan , Wuyang Zhang , Zhiyuan Ning , Fan Xu , Ziyang Tao , Lu Zhang , Bing Yin , Yanyong Zhang

We present LARL-RM (Large language model-generated Automaton for Reinforcement Learning with Reward Machine) algorithm in order to encode high-level knowledge into reinforcement learning using automaton to expedite the reinforcement…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-13 Shayan Meshkat Alsadat , Jean-Raphael Gaglione , Daniel Neider , Ufuk Topcu , Zhe Xu

Reasoning language models have demonstrated remarkable performance on many challenging tasks in math, science, and coding. Choosing the right reasoning model for practical deployment involves a performance and cost tradeoff at two key…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-03-12 Nigel Fernandez , Branislav Kveton , Ryan A. Rossi , Andrew S. Lan , Zichao Wang

Detailed routing remains one of the most complex and time-consuming steps in modern physical design due to the challenges posed by shrinking feature sizes and stricter design rules. Prior detailed routers achieve state-of-the-art results by…

Hardware Architecture · Computer Science 2025-12-04 Afsara Khan , Austin Rovinski

Test-time scaling methods have seen a rapid increase in popularity for its computational efficiency and parameter-independent training to improve reasoning performance on Large Language Models. One such method is called budget forcing, a…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-10-27 Ravindra Aribowo Tarunokusumo , Rafael Fernandes Cunha

A key strategy for balancing performance and cost in modern machine learning systems is to dynamically route queries to either a low-cost model or a more expensive oracle (such as a large pretrained model or human expert), an approach known…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Charlotte Peale , Siddartha Devic , Parikshit Gopalan , Udi Wieder , Aravind Gollakota

Large language models (LLMs) often exhibit complementary strengths. Model routing harnesses these strengths by dynamically directing each query to the most suitable model, given a candidate model pool. However, routing performance relies on…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-17 Chenxu Wang , Hao Li , Yiqun Zhang , Linyao Chen , Jianhao Chen , Ping Jian , Peng Ye , Qiaosheng Zhang , Shuyue Hu

Compound AI systems promise capabilities beyond those of individual models, yet their success depends critically on effective orchestration. Existing routing approaches face two limitations: (1) input-level routers make coarse query-level…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-24 Jiayu Wang , Yifei Ming , Zixuan Ke , Shafiq Joty , Aws Albarghouthi , Frederic Sala

Reasoning-capable large language models (LLMs) have recently been adopted as automated judges, but their benefits and costs in LLM-as-a-Judge settings remain unclear. Through controlled comparisons between reasoning and non-reasoning…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Wenbo Zhang , Lijinghua Zhang , Liner Xiang , Hengrui Cai

Large language models have achieved remarkable success in various tasks but suffer from high computational costs during inference, limiting their deployment in resource-constrained applications. To address this issue, we propose a novel…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-11 Wenhao Zheng , Yixiao Chen , Weitong Zhang , Souvik Kundu , Yun Li , Zhengzhong Liu , Eric P. Xing , Hongyi Wang , Huaxiu Yao