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Regret matching (RM) -- and its modern variants -- is a foundational online algorithm that has been at the heart of many AI breakthrough results in solving benchmark zero-sum games, such as poker. Yet, surprisingly little is known so far in…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-11-18 Ioannis Anagnostides , Emanuel Tewolde , Brian Hu Zhang , Ioannis Panageas , Vincent Conitzer , Tuomas Sandholm

A dominant approach to solving large imperfect-information games is Counterfactural Regret Minimization (CFR). In CFR, many regret minimization problems are combined to solve the game. For very large games, abstraction is typically needed…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-12-02 Ryan D'Orazio , Dustin Morrill , James R. Wright

Counterfactual regret minimization (CFR) is a family of iterative algorithms that are the most popular and, in practice, fastest approach to approximately solving large imperfect-information games. In this paper we introduce novel CFR…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2019-02-22 Noam Brown , Tuomas Sandholm

Regret minimization has proved to be a versatile tool for tree-form sequential decision making and extensive-form games. In large two-player zero-sum imperfect-information games, modern extensions of counterfactual regret minimization (CFR)…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2021-03-09 Gabriele Farina , Tuomas Sandholm

Regret-based algorithms are highly efficient at finding approximate Nash equilibria in sequential games such as poker games. However, most regret-based algorithms, including counterfactual regret minimization (CFR) and its variants, rely on…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-10-28 Chung-Wei Lee , Christian Kroer , Haipeng Luo

Regret Matching+ (RM+) and its variants are important algorithms for solving large-scale games. However, a theoretical understanding of their success in practice is still a mystery. Moreover, recent advances on fast convergence in games are…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2023-05-25 Gabriele Farina , Julien Grand-Clément , Christian Kroer , Chung-Wei Lee , Haipeng Luo

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) and its variants developed based upon Regret Matching (RM) have been considered to be the best method to solve incomplete information extensive form games. In addition to RM and CFR, Fictitious Play…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2023-11-14 Qi Ju

Counterfactual regret minimization (CFR) is a family of algorithms for effectively solving imperfect-information games. It decomposes the total regret into counterfactual regrets, utilizing local regret minimization algorithms, such as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-15 Hang Xu , Kai Li , Bingyun Liu , Haobo Fu , Qiang Fu , Junliang Xing , Jian Cheng

We study last-iterate convergence properties of algorithms for solving two-player zero-sum games based on Regret Matching$^+$ (RM$^+$). Despite their widespread use for solving real games, virtually nothing is known about their last-iterate…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-03-05 Yang Cai , Gabriele Farina , Julien Grand-Clément , Christian Kroer , Chung-Wei Lee , Haipeng Luo , Weiqiang Zheng

To establish last-iterate convergence for Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) algorithms in learning a Nash equilibrium (NE) of extensive-form games (EFGs), recent studies reformulate learning an NE of the original EFG as learning the…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-03-19 Linjian Meng , Youzhi Zhang , Zhenxing Ge , Shangdong Yang , Tianyu Ding , Wenbin Li , Tianpei Yang , Bo An , Yang Gao

Regret minimization is a powerful method for finding Nash equilibria in Normal-Form Games (NFGs) and Extensive-Form Games (EFGs), but it typically guarantees convergence only for the average strategy. However, computing the average strategy…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-09-18 Hang Ren , Yulin Wu , Shuhan Qi , Jiajia Zhang , Xiaozhen Sun , Tianzi Ma , Xuan Wang

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) algorithms are widely used to compute a Nash equilibrium (NE) in two-player zero-sum imperfect-information extensive-form games (IIGs). Among them, Predictive CFR$^+$ (PCFR$^+$) is particularly…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-14 Linjian Meng , Tianpei Yang , Youzhi Zhang , Zhenxing Ge , Yang Gao

No-regret learning has emerged as a powerful tool for solving extensive-form games. This was facilitated by the counterfactual-regret minimization (CFR) framework, which relies on the instantiation of regret minimizers for simplexes at each…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2017-11-10 Gabriele Farina , Christian Kroer , Tuomas Sandholm

In game theory, imperfect-recall decision problems model situations in which an agent forgets information it held before. They encompass games such as the ``absentminded driver'' and team games with limited communication. In this paper, we…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2026-02-18 Emanuel Tewolde , Brian Hu Zhang , Ioannis Anagnostides , Tuomas Sandholm , Vincent Conitzer

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) is an efficient no-regret learning algorithm for decision problems modeled as extensive games. CFR's regret bounds depend on the requirement of perfect recall: players always remember information…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2012-05-04 Marc Lanctot , Richard Gibson , Neil Burch , Martin Zinkevich , Michael Bowling

The Nash Equilibrium (NE) assumes rational play in imperfect-information Extensive-Form Games (EFGs) but fails to ensure optimal strategies for off-equilibrium branches of the game tree, potentially leading to suboptimal outcomes in…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-08-12 Hang Ren , Xiaozhen Sun , Tianzi Ma , Jiajia Zhang , Xuan Wang

In many real-world scenarios, a team of agents coordinate with each other to compete against an opponent. The challenge of solving this type of game is that the team's joint action space grows exponentially with the number of agents, which…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-05-19 Shuxin Li , Youzhi Zhang , Xinrun Wang , Wanqi Xue , Bo An

Counterfactual regret minimization (CFR) is a family of algorithms for effectively solving imperfect-information games. To enhance CFR's applicability in large games, researchers use neural networks to approximate its behavior. However,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-12 Hang Xu , Kai Li , Haobo Fu , Qiang Fu , Junliang Xing , Jian Cheng

Counterfactual Regret Minimization (CFR) is the most popular iterative algorithm for solving zero-sum imperfect-information games. Regret-Based Pruning (RBP) is an improvement that allows poorly-performing actions to be temporarily pruned,…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2016-09-13 Noam Brown , Tuomas Sandholm

Counterfactual regret minimization (CFR) is the most popular algorithm on solving two-player zero-sum extensive games with imperfect information and achieves state-of-the-art performance in practice. However, the performance of CFR is not…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-12-27 Yichi Zhou , Tongzheng Ren , Jialian Li , Dong Yan , Jun Zhu
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