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The widespread deployment of large language models (LLMs) has intensified concerns around intellectual property (IP) protection, as model theft and unauthorized redistribution become increasingly feasible. To address this, model…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-15 Zhenhua Xu , Xixiang Zhao , Xubin Yue , Shengwei Tian , Changting Lin , Meng Han

Watermarking large language models (LLMs) is vital for preventing their misuse, including the fabrication of fake news, plagiarism, and spam. It is especially important to watermark LLM-generated code, as it often contains intellectual…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-18 Li Lin , Siyuan Xin , Yang Cao , Xiaochun Cao

Model watermarking utilizes internal representations to protect the ownership of large language models (LLMs). However, these features inevitably undergo complex distortions during realistic model modifications such as fine-tuning,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-20 Zikang Ding , Junhao Li , Suling Wu , Junchi Yao , Hongbo Liu , Lijie Hu

Watermarking acts as a critical safeguard in text generated by Large Language Models (LLMs). By embedding identifiable signals into model outputs, watermarking enables reliable attribution and enhances the security of machine-generated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Yukang Lin , Jiahao Shao , Shuoran Jiang , Wentao Zhu , Bingjie Lu , Xiangping Wu , Joanna Siebert , Qingcai Chen

To mitigate potential risks associated with language models, recent AI detection research proposes incorporating watermarks into machine-generated text through random vocabulary restrictions and utilizing this information for detection.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-02-14 Yu Fu , Deyi Xiong , Yue Dong

Large language models (LLMs) can be misused to reveal sensitive information, such as weapon-making instructions or writing malware. LLM providers rely on $\emph{monitoring}$ to detect and flag unsafe behavior during inference. An open…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-01 Toluwani Aremu , Daniil Ognev , Samuele Poppi , Nils Lukas

Large Language Model (LLM) watermarking embeds detectable signals into generated text for copyright protection, misuse prevention, and content detection. While prior studies evaluate robustness using watermark removal attacks, these methods…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Zhaoxi Zhang , Xiaomei Zhang , Yanjun Zhang , He Zhang , Shirui Pan , Bo Liu , Asif Qumer Gill , Leo Yu Zhang

Watermarking for large language models (LLMs) is a promising approach for detecting LLM-generated text and enabling responsible deployment. However, existing watermarking methods are often vulnerable to semantic-invariant attacks, such as…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Zhenxin Ai , Haiyun He

In this paper, we investigate the recent state-of-the-art schemes for watermarking large language models (LLMs) outputs. These techniques are claimed to be robust, scalable and production-grade, aimed at promoting responsible usage of LLMs.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Jonathan Hong Jin Ng , Anh Tu Ngo , Anupam Chattopadhyay

Natural language generation (NLG) applications have gained great popularity due to the powerful deep learning techniques and large training corpus. The deployed NLG models may be stolen or used without authorization, while watermarking has…

Multimedia · Computer Science 2021-12-13 Tao Xiang , Chunlong Xie , Shangwei Guo , Jiwei Li , Tianwei Zhang

Watermarking has emerged as a promising technique for detecting texts generated by LLMs. Current research has primarily focused on three design criteria: high quality of the watermarked text, high detectability, and robustness against…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-04-11 Li An , Yujian Liu , Yepeng Liu , Yang Zhang , Yuheng Bu , Shiyu Chang

Amidst rising concerns about the internet being proliferated with content generated from language models (LMs), watermarking is seen as a principled way to certify whether text was generated from a model. Many recent watermarking techniques…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-11-11 Saksham Rastogi , Danish Pruthi

Existing watermarking algorithms are vulnerable to paraphrase attacks because of their token-level design. To address this issue, we propose SemStamp, a robust sentence-level semantic watermarking algorithm based on locality-sensitive…

Large Language Models (LLMs) have experienced rapid advancements, with applications spanning a wide range of fields, including sentiment classification, review generation, and question answering. Due to their efficiency and versatility,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-17 Yugeng Liu , Tianshuo Cong , Michael Backes , Zheng Li , Yang Zhang

We present REMARK-LLM, a novel efficient, and robust watermarking framework designed for texts generated by large language models (LLMs). Synthesizing human-like content using LLMs necessitates vast computational resources and extensive…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-04-09 Ruisi Zhang , Shehzeen Samarah Hussain , Paarth Neekhara , Farinaz Koushanfar

While watermarks for closed LLMs have matured and have been included in large-scale deployments, these methods are not applicable to open-source models, which allow users full control over the decoding process. This setting is understudied…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-18 Thibaud Gloaguen , Nikola Jovanović , Robin Staab , Martin Vechev

LLM watermarks stand out as a promising way to attribute ownership of LLM-generated text. One threat to watermark credibility comes from spoofing attacks, where an unauthorized third party forges the watermark, enabling it to falsely…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-05-23 Thibaud Gloaguen , Nikola Jovanović , Robin Staab , Martin Vechev

Despite recent advances, Large Language Models remain vulnerable to jailbreak attacks that bypass alignment safeguards and elicit harmful outputs. While prior research has proposed various attack strategies differing in human readability…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-28 Havva Alizadeh Noughabi , Julien Serbanescu , Fattane Zarrinkalam , Ali Dehghantanha

The proliferation of open-source code and large language models (LLMs) for code generation has amplified the risks of unauthorized reuse and intellectual property infringement. Source code watermarking offers a potential solution, yet…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Rui Xu , Jiawei Chen , Weizhi Liu , Zhaoxia Yin , Cong Kong , Xinpeng Zhang

The widespread deployment and redistribution of large language models (LLMs) have made model provenance tracking a critical challenge. While existing LLM fingerprinting methods, particularly active approaches that embed identity signals via…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Sixu Chen , Xiang Chen , Hongyao Yu , Jiaxin Hong , Hao Fang , Shuoyang Sun , Bin Chen , Shu-Tao Xia