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This paper presents a comprehensive framework for transaction posting and pricing in Layer 2 (L2) blockchain systems, focusing on challenges stemming from fluctuating Layer 1 (L1) gas fees and the congestion issues within L2 networks.…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-05-27 Shouqiao Wang , Davide Crapis , Ciamac C. Moallemi

Blockchain eliminates the need for trusted third-party intermediaries in business by enabling decentralised architecture design in software applications. However, the vulnerabilities in on-chain autonomous decision-makings and cumbersome…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2022-06-03 Yue Liu , Qinghua Lu , Guangsheng Yu , Hye-Young Paik , Liming Zhu

Due to their interesting features, blockchains have become popular in recent years. They are full-stack systems where security is a critical factor for their success. The main focus of this work is to systematize knowledge about security…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2019-04-16 Ivan Homoliak , Sarad Venugopalan , Qingze Hum , Pawel Szalachowski

Blockchains have revolutionized decentralized applications, with composability enabling atomic, trustless interactions across smart contracts. However, layer 2 (L2) scalability solutions like rollups introduce fragmentation and hinder…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-10 Ioannis Kaklamanis , Fan Zhang

We present the first Systematization of Knowledge (SoK) on constructing Layer Two (L2) solutions for Bitcoin. We carefully examine a representative subset of ongoing Bitcoin L2 solutions (40 out of 335 extensively investigated cases) and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-09-05 Minfeng Qi , Qin Wang , Zhipeng Wang , Manvir Schneider , Tianqing Zhu , Shiping Chen , William Knottenbelt , Thomas Hardjono

Blockchain technology has set off a wave of decentralization in the world since its birth. The trust system constructed by blockchain technology based on cryptography algorithm and computing power provides a practical and powerful solution…

Computational Engineering, Finance, and Science · Computer Science 2025-05-08 Pengfei Gao , Dechao Kong , Xiaoqi Li

Blockchain is a type of decentralized distributed database. Unlike traditional relational database management systems, it does not require management or maintenance by a third party. All data management and update processes are open and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-05-14 Jiaqi Huang , Yuanzheng Niu , Xiaoqi Li , Zongwei Li

The smart city is an emerging notion that is leveraging the Internet of Things (IoT) technique to achieve more comfortable, smart and controllable cities. The communications crossing domains between smart cities is indispensable to enhance…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2021-10-29 Xiangyu Xu , Jianfei Peng

The Layer 2 Atomic Cross-Blockchain Function Calls protocol allows composable programming across Ethereum blockchains. It allows for inter-contract and inter-blockchain function calls that are both synchronous and atomic: if one part fails,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2020-07-02 Peter Robinson , Raghavendra Ramesh

Blockchain has attracted significant attention in recent years due to its potential to revolutionize various industries by providing trustlessness. To comprehensively examine blockchain systems, this article presents both a macro-level…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2023-04-18 Minghui Xu , Yihao Guo , Chunchi Liu , Qin Hu , Dongxiao Yu , Zehui Xiong , Dusit Niyato , Xiuzhen Cheng

Current blockchains do not provide any security guarantees to the smart contracts and their users as far as the content of the transactions is concerned. In the spirit of decentralization and censorship resistance, they follow the paradigm…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Martin Derka , Jan Gorzny , Diego Siqueira , Donato Pellegrino , Marius Guggenmos , Zhiyang Chen

Blockchain is an emerging technology that enables new forms of decentralized software architectures, where distributed components can reach agreements on shared system states without trusting a central integration point. Blockchain provides…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-02-25 Xiwei Xu , Cesare Pautasso , Sin Kuang Lo , Liming Zhu , Qinghua Lu , Ingo Weber

Blockchains rely on economic incentives to ensure secure and decentralised operation, making incentive compatibility a core design concern. However, protocols are rarely deployed in isolation. Applications interact with the underlying…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2026-04-08 Zeta Avarikioti , Georg Fuchsbauer , Pim Keer , Matteo Maffei , Fabian Regen

We present the notion of multilevel slashing, where proof-of-stake blockchain validators can obtain gradual levels of assurance that a certain block is bound to be finalized in a global consensus procedure, unless an increasing and…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2024-10-30 Kenan Wood , Hammurabi Mendes , Jonad Pulaj

For a decentralized and transparent society, blockchain technology has been developed. Along with this, quite a few consensus algorithms that are one of core technologies in blockchain have been proposed. Among them, we analyze a consensus…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2020-04-10 Geunwoo Lim , Yujin Kwon , Yongdae Kim

Blockchain is widely applied in logistics, finance, and agriculture. As single blockchain users grow, scalability becomes crucial. However, existing works lack a comprehensive summary of blockchain scalability. They focus on single chains…

Databases · Computer Science 2024-09-06 Baochao Chen , Liyuan Ma , Hao Xu , Juncheng Ma , Dengcheng Hu , Xiulong Liu , Jie Wu , Jianrong Wang , Keqiu Li

Over the past decade, blockchain technology has attracted a huge attention from both industry and academia because it can be integrated with a large number of everyday applications of modern information and communication technologies (ICT).…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-07-08 Muneeb Ul Hassan , Mubashir Husain Rehmani , Jinjun Chen

Public blockchains have spurred the growing popularity of decentralized transactions and smart contracts, but they exhibit limitations on the transaction throughput, storage, and computation. To avoid transaction gridlock, public…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2021-07-13 Nikolay Ivanov , Qiben Yan , Qingyang Wang

In the past decade, blockchain has shown a promising vision greatly to build the trust without any powerful third party in a secure, decentralized and salable manner. However, due to the wide application and future development from…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2021-05-11 Bin Cao , Zixin Wang , Long Zhang , Daquan Feng , Mugen Peng , Lei Zhang

Blockchain is a promising technology for establishing trust in IoT networks, where network nodes do not necessarily trust each other. Cryptographic hash links and distributed consensus mechanisms ensure that the data stored on an immutable…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2019-06-28 Volkan Dedeoglu , Raja Jurdak , Guntur D. Putra , Ali Dorri , Salil S. Kanhere