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The use of generative models to sample equilibrium distributions of many-body systems, as first demonstrated by Boltzmann Generators, has attracted substantial interest due to their ability to produce unbiased and uncorrelated samples in…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2025-10-23 Maximilian Schebek , Frank Noé , Jutta Rogal

The generation of equilibrium samples of molecular systems has been a long-standing problem in statistical physics. Boltzmann Generators are a generative machine learning method that addresses this issue by learning a transformation via a…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-02-04 Leon Klein , Frank Noé

Sampling equilibrium molecular configurations from the Boltzmann distribution is a longstanding challenge. Boltzmann Generators (BGs) address this by combining exact-likelihood generative models with importance sampling, but practical…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Weilong Chen , Bojun Zhao , Jan Eckwert , Julija Zavadlav

Boltzmann generators approach the sampling problem in many-body physics by combining a normalizing flow and a statistical reweighting method to generate samples in thermodynamic equilibrium. The equilibrium distribution is usually defined…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2022-09-07 Manuel Dibak , Leon Klein , Andreas Krämer , Frank Noé

Scalable sampling of molecular states in thermodynamic equilibrium is a long-standing challenge in statistical physics. Boltzmann Generators tackle this problem by pairing a generative model, capable of exact likelihood computation, with…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-11 Danyal Rehman , Tara Akhound-Sadegh , Artem Gazizov , Yoshua Bengio , Alexander Tong

Flows are exact-likelihood generative neural networks that transform samples from a simple prior distribution to the samples of the probability distribution of interest. Boltzmann Generators (BG) combine flows and statistical mechanics to…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2019-10-03 Jonas Köhler , Leon Klein , Frank Noé

Sampling equilibrium distributions is fundamental to statistical mechanics. While flow matching has emerged as scalable state-of-the-art paradigm for generative modeling, its potential for equilibrium sampling in condensed-phase systems…

Computational Physics · Physics 2026-03-31 Emil Hoffmann , Maximilian Schebek , Leon Klein , Frank Noé , Jutta Rogal

The paper by No\'e et al. [F. No\'e, S. Olsson, J. K\"ohler and H. Wu, Science, 365:6457 (2019)] introduced the concept of Boltzmann Generators (BGs), a deep generative model that can produce unbiased independent samples of many-body…

Computing equilibrium states in condensed-matter many-body systems, such as solvated proteins, is a long-standing challenge. Lacking methods for generating statistically independent equilibrium samples in "one shot", vast computational…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2019-07-15 Frank Noé , Simon Olsson , Jonas Köhler , Hao Wu

Boltzmann generators approach the sampling problem in many-body physics by combining a normalizing flow and a statistical reweighting method to generate samples of a physical system's equilibrium density. The equilibrium distribution is…

Computational Physics · Physics 2020-12-02 Manuel Dibak , Leon Klein , Frank Noé

Diffusion models have shown promising potential for advancing Boltzmann Generators. However, two critical challenges persist: (1) inherent errors in samples due to model imperfections, and (2) the requirement of hundreds of functional…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-12 Fengzhe Zhang , Jiajun He , Laurence I. Midgley , Javier Antorán , José Miguel Hernández-Lobato

Efficient sampling of unnormalized probability densities such as the Boltzmann distribution of molecular systems is a longstanding challenge. Next to conventional approaches like molecular dynamics or Markov chain Monte Carlo, variational…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Henrik Schopmans , Pascal Friederich

The accurate prediction of phase diagrams is of central importance for both the fundamental understanding of materials as well as for technological applications in material sciences. However, the computational prediction of the relative…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2024-11-26 Maximilian Schebek , Michele Invernizzi , Frank Noé , Jutta Rogal

Normalizing flows are a class of deep generative models that are especially interesting for modeling probability distributions in physics, where the exact likelihood of flows allows reweighting to known target energy functions and computing…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-11-27 Leon Klein , Andreas Krämer , Frank Noé

Generative models based on invertible transformations provide a physics-aware route to sample equilibrium configurations directly from the Boltzmann distribution, enabling efficient exploration of complex thermodynamic landscapes. Here, we…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2026-03-06 Luigi de Santis , John Russo , Andrea Ninarello

Normalizing flows have recently demonstrated the ability to learn the Boltzmann distribution of the Hubbard model, opening new avenues for generative modeling in condensed matter physics. In this work, we investigate the steps required to…

Strongly Correlated Electrons · Physics 2026-01-27 Janik Kreit , Andrea Bulgarelli , Lena Funcke , Thomas Luu , Dominic Schuh , Simran Singh , Lorenzo Verzichelli

Flow-based generative models have been employed for sampling the Boltzmann distribution, but their application to high-dimensional systems is hindered by the significant computational cost of obtaining the Jacobian of the flow. To overcome…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-07-30 Xin Peng , Ang Gao

Boltzmann machines (BMs) are powerful energy-based generative models, but their heavy training cost has largely confined practical use to Restricted BMs (RBMs) trained with an efficient learning method called contrastive divergence. More…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-03 Kentaro Kubo , Hayato Goto

Our method proposes the efficient generation of samples from an unnormalized Boltzmann density by solving the underlying continuity equation in the low-rank tensor train (TT) format. It is based on the annealing path commonly used in MCMC…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-11 Paul Hagemann , Janina Schütte , David Sommer , Martin Eigel , Gabriele Steidl

Efficient sampling from the Boltzmann distribution given its energy function is a key challenge for modeling complex physical systems such as molecules. Boltzmann Generators address this problem by leveraging continuous normalizing flows to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-17 Rishal Aggarwal , Jacky Chen , Nicholas M. Boffi , David Ryan Koes
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