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Bayesian Knowledge Tracing, a model used for cognitive mastery estimation, has been a hallmark of adaptive learning research and an integral component of deployed intelligent tutoring systems (ITS). In this paper, we provide a brief history…

Mathematical Software · Computer Science 2021-06-01 Anirudhan Badrinath , Frederic Wang , Zachary Pardos

As the core of the Knowledge Tracking (KT) task, assessing students' dynamic mastery of knowledge concepts is crucial for both offline teaching and online educational applications. Since students' mastery of knowledge concepts is often…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-09-06 Moyu Zhang , Xinning Zhu , Chunhong Zhang , Wenchen Qian , Feng Pan , Hui Zhao

Knowledge tracing (KT) aims to trace students' knowledge states by predicting whether students answer correctly on exercises. Despite the excellent performance of existing Transformer-based KT approaches, they are criticized for the…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2023-10-03 Shangshang Yang , Xiaoshan Yu , Ye Tian , Xueming Yan , Haiping Ma , Xingyi Zhang

Decentralized collaborative learning under data heterogeneity and privacy constraints has rapidly advanced. However, existing solutions like federated learning, ensembles, and transfer learning, often fail to adequately serve the unique…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-15 Norah Alballa , Wenxuan Zhang , Ziquan Liu , Ahmed M. Abdelmoniem , Mohamed Elhoseiny , Marco Canini

Educational systems often assume learners can identify their knowledge gaps, yet research consistently shows that students struggle to recognize what they don't know they need to learn-the "unknown unknowns" problem. This paper presents a…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2025-09-10 Jinwen Tang , Qiming Guo , Zhicheng Tang , Yi Shang

Knowledge tracing plays a pivotal role in intelligent tutoring systems. This task aims to predict the probability of students answering correctly to specific questions. To do so, knowledge tracing systems should trace the knowledge state of…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-06-13 Hyeondey Kim , Jinwoo Nam , Minjae Lee , Yun Jegal , Kyungwoo Song

In educational applications, Knowledge Tracing (KT), the problem of accurately predicting students' responses to future questions by summarizing their knowledge states, has been widely studied for decades as it is considered a fundamental…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2021-05-14 Yuhao Zhou , Xihua Li , Yunbo Cao , Xuemin Zhao , Qing Ye , Jiancheng Lv

Knowledge tracing (KT) aims to estimate student's knowledge mastery based on their historical interactions. Recently, the deep learning based KT (DLKT) approaches have achieved impressive performance in the KT task. These DLKT models…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2024-10-28 Hengyuan Zhang , Zitao Liu , Shuyan Huang , Chenming Shang , Bojun Zhan , Yong Jiang

Intelligent and adaptive online education systems aim to make high-quality education available for a diverse range of students. However, existing systems usually depend on a pool of hand-made questions, limiting how fine-grained and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-06-09 Megha Srivastava , Noah Goodman

Personalized adaptive learning (PAL) stands out by closely monitoring individual students' progress and tailoring their learning paths to their unique knowledge and needs. A crucial technique for effective PAL implementation is knowledge…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2024-10-21 Ming-Mu Kuo , Xiangfang Li , Lijun Qian , Pamela Obiomon , Xishuang Dong

Knowledge Tracing (KT) models students' evolving knowledge states to predict future performance, serving as a foundation for personalized education. While traditional deep learning models achieve high accuracy, they often lack…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-25 Runze Li , Kedi Chen , Guwei Feng , Mo Yu , Jun Wang , Wei Zhang

Emerging Knowledge Tracing (KT) models, particularly deep learning and attention-based Knowledge Tracing, have shown great potential in realizing personalized learning analysis via prediction of students' future performance based on their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-13 Shubham Kose , Jin Wei-Kocsis

Crowd counting is an application-oriented task and its inference efficiency is crucial for real-world applications. However, most previous works relied on heavy backbone networks and required prohibitive run-time consumption, which would…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-08-12 Lingbo Liu , Jiaqi Chen , Hefeng Wu , Tianshui Chen , Guanbin Li , Liang Lin

Pre-trained language models (PLMs) have emerged as powerful tools for code understanding. However, deploying these PLMs in large-scale applications faces practical challenges due to their computational intensity and inference latency.…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-08-22 Ruiqi Wang , Zezhou Yang , Cuiyun Gao , Xin Xia , Qing Liao

Knowledge tracing (KT) models are commonly evaluated by training on early interactions from all students and testing on later responses. While effective for measuring average predictive performance, this evaluation design obscures a cold…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-15 Indronil Bhattacharjee , Christabel Wayllace

This paper addresses the importance of Knowledge Structure (KS) and Knowledge Tracing (KT) in improving the recommendation of educational content in intelligent tutoring systems. The KS represents the relations between different Knowledge…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2024-02-06 Louis Annabi , Sao Mai Nguyen

Knowledge Tracing (KT) is a core component of Intelligent Tutoring Systems, modeling learners' knowledge state to predict future performance and provide personalized learning support. Traditional KT models assume that learners' learning…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-27 Yiyun Zhou , Zheqi Lv , Shengyu Zhang , Jingyuan Chen

This paper presents novel techniques for enhancing the performance of knowledge tracing (KT) models by focusing on the crucial factor of question and concept difficulty level. Despite the acknowledged significance of difficulty, previous KT…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-12-20 Unggi Lee , Sungjun Yoon , Joon Seo Yun , Kyoungsoo Park , YoungHoon Jung , Damji Stratton , Hyeoncheol Kim

The world has transitioned into a new phase of online learning in response to the recent Covid19 pandemic. Now more than ever, it has become paramount to push the limits of online learning in every manner to keep flourishing the education…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-08-31 Shalini Pandey , Jaideep Srivastava

Knowledge tracing (KT) aims to predict learners' future performance based on historical learning interactions. However, existing KT models predominantly focus on data from a single course, limiting their ability to capture a comprehensive…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-05-21 Wenkang Han , Wang Lin , Liya Hu , Zhenlong Dai , Yiyun Zhou , Mengze Li , Zemin Liu , Chang Yao , Jingyuan Chen