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We introduce aligned probing, a novel interpretability framework that aligns the behavior of language models (LMs), based on their outputs, and their internal representations (internals). Using this framework, we examine over 20 OLMo,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-25 Andreas Waldis , Vagrant Gautam , Anne Lauscher , Dietrich Klakow , Iryna Gurevych

In machine learning, "ground truth" refers to the assumed correct labels used to train and evaluate models. However, the foundational "ground truth" paradigm rests on a positivistic fallacy that treats human disagreement as technical noise…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Sheza Munir , Benjamin Mah , Krisha Kalsi , Shivani Kapania , Julian Posada , Edith Law , Ding Wang , Syed Ishtiaque Ahmed

Text moderation for user generated content, which helps to promote healthy interaction among users, has been widely studied and many machine learning models have been proposed. In this work, we explore an alternative perspective by…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-09-21 Fei Tan , Yifan Hu , Kevin Yen , Changwei Hu

Researchers have raised awareness about the harms of aggregating labels especially in subjective tasks that naturally contain disagreements among human annotators. In this work we show that models that are only provided aggregated labels…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-08 Abhishek Anand , Negar Mokhberian , Prathyusha Naresh Kumar , Anweasha Saha , Zihao He , Ashwin Rao , Fred Morstatter , Kristina Lerman

The dissemination of Large Language Models (LLMs), trained at scale, and endowed with powerful text-generating abilities, has made it easier for all to produce harmful, toxic, faked or forged content. In response, various proposals have…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-12 Matthieu Dubois , François Yvon , Pablo Piantanida

The evolution of digital communication systems and the designs of online platforms have inadvertently facilitated the subconscious propagation of toxic behavior. Giving rise to reactive responses to toxic behavior. Toxicity in online…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2025-10-01 Smita Khapre , Melkamu Abay Mersha , Hassan Shakil , Jonali Baruah , Jugal Kalita

Large language models (LLMs) have achieved impressive results across a range of natural language processing tasks, but their potential to generate harmful content has raised serious safety concerns. Current toxicity detectors primarily rely…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-20 Zhiqiang Kou , Junyang Chen , Xin-Qiang Cai , Ming-Kun Xie , Biao Liu , Changwei Wang , Lei Feng , Yuheng Jia , Gang Niu , Masashi Sugiyama , Xin Geng

Online texts with toxic content are a clear threat to the users on social media in particular and society in general. Although many platforms have adopted various measures (e.g., machine learning-based hate-speech detection systems) to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-29 Yiran Ye , Thai Le , Dongwon Lee

Toxicity detection is crucial for maintaining the peace of the society. While existing methods perform well on normal toxic contents or those generated by specific perturbation methods, they are vulnerable to evolving perturbation patterns.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-03-05 Hankun Kang , Jianhao Chen , Yongqi Li , Xin Miao , Mayi Xu , Ming Zhong , Yuanyuan Zhu , Tieyun Qian

Toxicity classification in textual content remains a significant problem. Data with labels from a single annotator fall short of capturing the diversity of human perspectives. Therefore, there is a growing need to incorporate crowdsourced…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-11-11 Zelei Cheng , Xian Wu , Jiahao Yu , Shuo Han , Xin-Qiang Cai , Xinyu Xing

Conformal inference provides a rigorous statistical framework for uncertainty quantification in machine learning, enabling well-calibrated prediction sets with precise coverage guarantees for any classification model. However, its reliance…

As social media has become a predominant mode of communication globally, the rise of abusive content threatens to undermine civil discourse. Recognizing the critical nature of this issue, a significant body of research has been dedicated to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-21 Xinyu Wang , Sai Koneru , Pranav Narayanan Venkit , Brett Frischmann , Sarah Rajtmajer

Toxic language includes content that is offensive, abusive, or that promotes harm. Progress in preventing toxic output from large language models (LLMs) is hampered by inconsistent definitions of toxicity. We introduce TRuST, a large-scale…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-07 Berk Atil , Namrata Sureddy , Rebecca J. Passonneau

There is an ongoing debate about how to moderate toxic speech on social media and the impact of content moderation on online discourse. This paper proposes and validates a methodology for measuring the content-moderation-induced distortions…

Social and Information Networks · Computer Science 2026-03-04 Mahyar Habibi , Dirk Hovy , Carlo Schwarz

Millions of people rely on search functionality to find and explore content on entertainment platforms. Modern search systems use a combination of candidate generation and ranking approaches, with advanced methods leveraging deep learning…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-05-26 Adeep Hande , Kishorekumar Sundararajan , Sardar Hamidian , Ferhan Ture

In today's digital world, social media plays a significant role in facilitating communication and content sharing. However, the exponential rise in user-generated content has led to challenges in maintaining a respectful online environment.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Mohammad Dehghani

Obtaining annotations for complex computer vision tasks such as object detection is an expensive and time-intense endeavor involving a large number of human workers or expert opinions. Reducing the amount of annotations required while…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-03 Marius Schubert , Tobias Riedlinger , Karsten Kahl , Matthias Rottmann

Supervised machine learning assumes that labeled data provide accurate measurements of the concepts models are meant to learn. Yet in practice, human labeling introduces systematic variation arising from ambiguous items, divergent…

Methodology · Statistics 2026-04-10 Robert Chew , Stephanie Eckman , Christoph Kern , Frauke Kreuter

Aggregating multiple annotations into a single ground truth label may hide valuable insights into annotator disagreement, particularly in tasks where subjectivity plays a crucial role. In this work, we explore methods for identifying…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-09 Amir Homayounirad , Enrico Liscio , Tong Wang , Catholijn M. Jonker , Luciano C. Siebert

Semantic annotations have to satisfy quality constraints to be useful for digital libraries, which is particularly challenging on large and diverse datasets. Confidence scores of multi-label classification methods typically refer only to…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2018-06-08 Martin Toepfer , Christin Seifert
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