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Understanding the theoretical foundations of how memories are encoded and retrieved in neural populations is a central challenge in neuroscience. A popular theoretical scenario for modeling memory function is the attractor neural network…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2016-02-17 Alireza Alemi , Carlo Baldassi , Nicolas Brunel , Riccardo Zecchina

The Hopfield network (HN) is a classical model of associative memory whose dynamics are closely related to the Ising spin system with 2-body interactions. Stored patterns are encoded as minima of an energy function shaped by a Hebbian…

Applied Physics · Physics 2025-09-23 Marco Cafiso , Paolo Paradisi

Models of interacting complex systems provide the fundamental statistical physics reference frame for the study and the understanding of associative memories, machine learning, and the dynamics of neural networks. On the other hand,…

Dense Associative Memories or modern Hopfield networks permit storage and reliable retrieval of an exponentially large (in the dimension of feature space) number of memories. At the same time, their naive implementation is non-biological,…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2021-04-29 Dmitry Krotov , John Hopfield

The Hopfield model provides a paradigmatic framework for associative memory. Its classical implementation, based on the Hebbian learning rule, suffers from catastrophic forgetting: when one attempts storing too many patterns, the network…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2026-03-11 Enzo Marinari , Saverio Rossi , Francesco Zamponi

We present a nonparametric interpretation for deep learning compatible modern Hopfield models and utilize this new perspective to debut efficient variants. Our key contribution stems from interpreting the memory storage and retrieval…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-06-10 Jerry Yao-Chieh Hu , Bo-Yu Chen , Dennis Wu , Feng Ruan , Han Liu

Hebbian synaptic plasticity inevitably leads to interference and forgetting when different, overlapping memory patterns are sequentially stored in the same network. Recent work on artificial neural networks shows that an…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2018-07-16 Michael Deistler , Martino Sorbaro , Michael E. Rule , Matthias H. Hennig

The Hopfield network serves as a fundamental energy-based model in machine learning, capturing memory retrieval dynamics through an ordinary differential equation (ODE). The model's output, the equilibrium point of the ODE, is traditionally…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-22 Cédric Goemaere , Johannes Deleu , Thomas Demeester

Brain-inspired computing aims to mimic cognitive functions like associative memory, the ability to recall complete patterns from partial cues. Memristor technology offers promising hardware for such neuromorphic systems due to its potential…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-20 Chengping He , Mingrui Jiang , Keyi Shan , Szu-Hao Yang , Zefan Li , Shengbo Wang , Giacomo Pedretti , Jim Ignowski , Can Li

Generative models, including diffusion models, are increasingly used as foundation models and adapted through sequential fine-tuning, making continual learning an essential problem setting. However, continual learning in such generative…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Ken Takeda , Masafumi Oizumi , Ryo Karakida

In this study we introduce a novel energy functional for long-sequence memory, building upon the framework of dense Hopfield networks which achieves exponential storage capacity through higher-order interactions. Building upon earlier work…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-03 Ahmed Farooq

The brain can reproduce memories from partial data; this ability is critical for memory recall. The process of memory recall has been studied using auto-associative networks such as the Hopfield model. This kind of model reliably converges…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2016-05-18 James P. Roach , Leonard M Sander , Michal R. Zochowski

Hopfield models, originally developed to study memory retrieval in neural networks, have become versatile tools for modeling diverse biological systems in which function emerges from collective dynamics. In this review, we provide a…

Biological Physics · Physics 2025-06-17 Maria Yampolskaya , Pankaj Mehta

We present an algorithm to store binary memories in a Hopfield neural network using minimum probability flow, a recent technique to fit parameters in energy-based probabilistic models. In the case of memories without noise, our algorithm…

Adaptation and Self-Organizing Systems · Physics 2015-05-21 Christopher Hillar , Jascha Sohl-Dickstein , Kilian Koepsell

Understanding the memory capacity of neural networks remains a challenging problem in implementing artificial intelligence systems. In this paper, we address the notion of capacity with respect to Hopfield networks and propose a dynamic…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2017-09-19 Saarthak Sarup , Mingoo Seok

We propose and analyze a new variation of the so-called {\em exponential Hopfield model}, a recently introduced family of associative neural networks with unprecedented storage capacity. Our construction is based on a cost function defined…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2025-09-09 Linda Albanese , Andrea Alessandrelli , Adriano Barra , Peter Sollich

Standard large deviation estimates or the use of the Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation reduce the analysis of the distribution of the overlap parameters essentially to that of an explicitly known random function $\Phi_{N,\b}$ on $\R^M$.…

Condensed Matter · Physics 2007-05-23 Anton Bovier , Véronique Gayrard

We present a Hopfield-like autoassociative network for memories representing examples of concepts. Each memory is encoded by two activity patterns with complementary properties. The first is dense and correlated across examples within…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2023-08-28 Louis Kang , Taro Toyoizumi

Many models used in artificial intelligence and cognitive science rely on multi-element patterns stored in "slots" - dedicated storage locations - in a digital computer. As biological brains likely lack slots, we consider how they might…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-11-07 Shaunak Bhandarkar , James L. McClelland

It has been shown that a neural network model recently proposed to describe basic memory performance is based on a ternary/binary coding/decoding algorithm which leads to a new neural network assembly memory model (NNAMM) providing…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2007-05-23 Petro M. Gopych