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Dataset contamination, where evaluation datasets overlap with pre-training corpora, inflates performance metrics and undermines the reliability of model evaluations. Measuring dataset contamination thus becomes essential to ensure that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-22 Hyeong Kyu Choi , Maxim Khanov , Hongxin Wei , Yixuan Li

Publishing a large language model (LLM) benchmark on the Internet risks contaminating future LLMs: the benchmark may be unintentionally (or intentionally) used to train or select a model. A common mitigation is to keep the benchmark private…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-07 Takashi Ishida , Thanawat Lodkaew , Ikko Yamane

The expanding integration of Large Language Models (LLMs) into recommender systems poses critical challenges to evaluation reliability. This paper identifies and investigates a previously overlooked issue: benchmark data leakage in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-27 Mingqiao Zhang , Qiyao Peng , Yinghui Wang , Hongtao Liu , Yumeng Wang

If LLM training data is polluted with benchmark test data, then benchmark performance gives biased estimates of out-of-distribution (OOD) generalization. Typical decontamination filters use n-gram matching which fail to detect semantic…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-16 Ari Spiesberger , Juan J. Vazquez , Nicky Pochinkov , Tomáš Gavenčiak , Peli Grietzer , Gavin Leech , Nandi Schoots

Large Language Models (LLMs) are used for many tasks, including those related to coding. An important aspect of being able to utilize LLMs is the ability to assess their fitness for specific usages. The common practice is to evaluate LLMs…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-07-30 Marcel Zalmanovici , Orna Raz , Eitan Farchi , Iftach Freund

Pretrained language models are typically trained on massive web-based datasets, which are often "contaminated" with downstream test sets. It is not clear to what extent models exploit the contaminated data for downstream tasks. We present a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-03-17 Inbal Magar , Roy Schwartz

As scaling laws push the training of frontier large language models (LLMs) toward ever-growing data requirements, training pipelines are approaching a regime where much of the publicly available online text may be consumed. At the same…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-13 Giorgio Racca , Michal Valko , Amartya Sanyal

Large language models (LLMs) frequently generate defective outputs in code generation tasks, ranging from logical bugs to security vulnerabilities. While these generation failures are often treated as model-level limitations, empirical…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-08 Kaifeng He , Xiaojun Zhang , Peiliang Cai , Mingwei Liu , Yanlin Wang , Chong Wang , Kaifeng Huang , Bihuan Chen , Xin Peng , Zibin Zheng

Amid the expanding use of pre-training data, the phenomenon of benchmark dataset leakage has become increasingly prominent, exacerbated by opaque training processes and the often undisclosed inclusion of supervised data in contemporary…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-30 Ruijie Xu , Zengzhi Wang , Run-Ze Fan , Pengfei Liu

Pre-trained code models rely heavily on high-quality pre-training data, particularly human-written reference comments that bridge code and natural language. However, these comments often become outdated as software evolves, degrading model…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-04-29 Kang Yang , Xinjun Mao , Shangwen Wang , Yanlin Wang , Tanghaoran Zhang , Bo Lin , Yihao Qin , Zhang Zhang , Yao Lu , Kamal Al-Sabahi

Large language models (LLMs) such as Llama 2 perform very well on tasks that involve both natural language and source code, particularly code summarization and code generation. We show that for the task of code summarization, the…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-04-15 Rajarshi Haldar , Julia Hockenmaier

With the rapid development of Large Language Models (LLMs), a large number of machine learning models have been developed to assist programming tasks including the generation of program code from natural language input. However, how to…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-06-19 Debalina Ghosh Paul , Hong Zhu , Ian Bayley

As large language models achieve increasingly impressive results, questions arise about whether such performance is from generalizability or mere data memorization. Thus, numerous data contamination detection methods have been proposed.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-12-10 Vinay Samuel , Yue Zhou , Henry Peng Zou

Benchmark contamination poses a significant challenge to the reliability of Large Language Models (LLMs) evaluations, as it is difficult to assert whether a model has been trained on a test set. We introduce a solution to this problem by…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-22 Tom Sander , Pierre Fernandez , Saeed Mahloujifar , Alain Durmus , Chuan Guo

Data contamination has received increasing attention in the era of large language models (LLMs) due to their reliance on vast Internet-derived training corpora. To mitigate the risk of potential data contamination, LLM benchmarking has…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-01 Simin Chen , Yiming Chen , Zexin Li , Yifan Jiang , Zhongwei Wan , Yixin He , Dezhi Ran , Tianle Gu , Haizhou Li , Tao Xie , Baishakhi Ray

Large language models have gained significant popularity because of their ability to generate human-like text and potential applications in various fields, such as Software Engineering. Large language models for code are commonly trained on…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-01-17 Ali Al-Kaswan , Maliheh Izadi , Arie van Deursen

Recent statements about the impressive capabilities of large language models (LLMs) are usually supported by evaluating on open-access benchmarks. Considering the vast size and wide-ranging sources of LLMs' training data, it could…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-03 Yihong Dong , Xue Jiang , Huanyu Liu , Zhi Jin , Bin Gu , Mengfei Yang , Ge Li

As large language models achieve impressive scores on traditional benchmarks, an increasing number of researchers are becoming concerned about benchmark data leakage during pre-training, commonly known as the data contamination problem. To…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-27 Kun Qian , Shunji Wan , Claudia Tang , Youzhi Wang , Xuanming Zhang , Maximillian Chen , Zhou Yu

The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) has heightened concerns about benchmark data contamination (BDC), where models inadvertently memorize evaluation data during the training process, inflating performance metrics, and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-23 Cheng Xu , Nan Yan , Shuhao Guan , Changhong Jin , Yuke Mei , Yibing Guo , M-Tahar Kechadi

Data contamination is a known threat to the reliability of model evaluation. However, it remains underexplored in code large language models (LLMs), where contamination often goes beyond exact duplication. We present TRACER, a…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Yifeng Di , Xuliang Huang , Tianyi Zhang