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Classical shadows provide a versatile framework for estimating many properties of quantum states from repeated, randomly chosen measurements without requiring full quantum state tomography. When prior information is available, such as…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-27 Jacob Bringewatt , Henry Froland , Andreas Elben , Niklas Mueller

Recently introduced shadow tomography protocols use classical shadows of quantum states to predict many target functions of an unknown quantum state. Unlike full quantum state tomography, shadow tomography does not insist on accurate…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-05-27 Atithi Acharya , Siddhartha Saha , Anirvan M. Sengupta

Extracting classical information from quantum systems is of fundamental importance, and classical shadows allow us to extract a large amount of information using relatively few measurements. Conventional shadow estimators are unbiased and…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-04-03 Zhenyu Cai , Adrian Chapman , Hamza Jnane , Bálint Koczor

We give the first tight sample complexity bounds for shadow tomography and classical shadows in the regime where the target error is below some sufficiently small inverse polynomial in the dimension of the Hilbert space. Formally we give a…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-07-22 Sitan Chen , Jerry Li , Allen Liu

We provide practical and powerful schemes for learning many properties of an unknown n-qubit quantum state using a sparing number of copies of the state. Specifically, we present a depth-modulated randomized measurement scheme that…

Quantum computers are believed to bring computational advantages in simulating quantum many body systems. However, recent works have shown that classical machine learning algorithms are able to predict numerous properties of quantum systems…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-12-23 Riccardo Molteni , Casper Gyurik , Vedran Dunjko

The space of positive operator-valued measures on the Borel sets of a compact (or even locally compact) Hausdorff space with values in the algebra of linear operators acting on a d-dimensional Hilbert space is studied from the perspectives…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2015-05-30 Douglas Farenick , Sarah Plosker , Jerrod Smith

Quantum learning encounters fundamental challenges when estimating non-linear properties, owing to the inherent linearity of quantum mechanics. Although recent advances in single-copy randomized measurement protocols have achieved optimal…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-30 Zhenyu Du , Yifan Tang , Andreas Elben , Ingo Roth , Jens Eisert , Zhenhuan Liu

Variational quantum metrology represents a powerful tool for optimizing generic estimation strategies, combining the principles of variational optimization with the techniques of quantum metrology. Such optimization procedures result…

Shadow tomography protocols have recently emerged as powerful tools for efficient quantum state learning, aiming to reconstruct expectation values of observables with fewer resources than traditional quantum state tomography. For the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-01-27 Viet T. Tran , Richard Kueng

We discuss symmetric quantum measurements and the associated covariant observables modelled, respectively, as instruments and positive-operator-valued measures. The emphasis of this work are the optimality properties of the measurements,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-03-30 Erkka Haapasalo , Juha-Pekka Pellonpää

Estimation of physical observables for unknown quantum states is an important problem that underlies a wide range of fields, including quantum information processing, quantum physics, and quantum chemistry. In the context of quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-05-21 Yuma Nakamura , Yoshichika Yano , Nobuyuki Yoshioka

We introduce a technique to estimate error-mitigated expectation values on noisy quantum computers. Our technique performs shadow tomography on a logical state to produce a memory-efficient classical reconstruction of the noisy density…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-03-15 Hong-Ye Hu , Ryan LaRose , Yi-Zhuang You , Eleanor Rieffel , Zhihui Wang

We study informationally overcomplete measurements for quantum state estimation so as to clarify their tomographic significance as compared with minimal informationally complete measurements. We show that informationally overcomplete…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2014-08-06 Huangjun Zhu

Quantum measurements are slow, while classical processors are fast, yet existing hybrid protocols never exploit this asymmetry. In this work, we propose an alternative formulation of classical estimators as online algorithms that are…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-30 Marwa Marso , Sabrina Herbst , Jadwiga Wilkens , Vincenzo De Maio , Ivona Brandic , Richard Kueng

In the field of quantum information, classical optimizers play an important role. From experimentalists optimizing their physical devices to theorists exploring variational quantum algorithms, many aspects of quantum information require the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-10-17 Lucas Tecot , Cho-Jui Hsieh

Model-independent estimation of the properties of quantum states is a central challenge in quantum technologies, as experimental imperfections, drifts, and imprecise models of the actual quantum dynamics inevitably hinder accurate…

Measurement incompatibility has proved to be an important resource for quantum information processing. In this work, we present an operational approach that leverages classical operations on the inputs (pre-processing) and outputs…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-01-16 Arun Kumar Das , Saheli Mukherjee , Debashis Saha , Debarshi Das , A. S. Majumdar

We consider the general measurement scenario in which the ensemble average of an operator is determined via suitable data-processing of the outcomes of a quantum measurement described by a POVM. After reviewing the optimization of data…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2007-05-23 Paolo Perinotti , Giacomo M. D'Ariano

We present conditions for the efficient simulation of a broad class of optical quantum circuits on a classical machine: this class includes unitary transformations, amplification, noise, and measurements. Various proposed schemes for…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2007-05-23 Stephen D. Bartlett , Barry C. Sanders