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The Pauli matrices are 2-by-2 matrices that are very useful in quantum computing. They can be used as elementary gates in quantum circuits but also to decompose any matrix of $\mathbb{C}^{2^n \times 2^n}$ as a linear combination of tensor…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-03-19 Océane Koska , Marc Baboulin , Arnaud Gazda

We consider a quantum computation that only extracts one bit of information per $N$-qubit quantum state preparation. This is relevant for error mitigation schemes where the remainder of the system is measured to detect errors. We optimize…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-07-19 Stefano Polla , Gian-Luca R. Anselmetti , Thomas E. O'Brien

We consider the problem of jointly estimating expectation values of many Pauli observables, a crucial subroutine in variational quantum algorithms. Starting with randomized measurements, we propose an efficient derandomization procedure…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-07-21 Hsin-Yuan Huang , Richard Kueng , John Preskill

We present a polynomial-time classical algorithm for estimating expectation values of arbitrary observables on typical quantum circuits under any incoherent local noise, including non-unital or dephasing. Although previous research…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-04-23 Armando Angrisani , Antonio A. Mele , Manuel S. Rudolph , M. Cerezo , Zoë Holmes

Expectation value estimation is ubiquitous in quantum algorithms. The expectation value of a Hamiltonian, which is essential in various practical applications, is often estimated by measuring a large number of Pauli strings on quantum…

Evaluating an expectation value of an arbitrary observable $A\in{\mathbb C}^{2^n\times 2^n}$ through na\"ive Pauli measurements requires a large number of terms to be evaluated. We approach this issue using a method based on Bell…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-04-20 Ruho Kondo , Yuki Sato , Satoshi Koide , Seiji Kajita , Hideki Takamatsu

This paper introduces a novel general-purpose algorithm for Pauli decomposition that employs matrix slicing and addition rather than expensive matrix multiplication, significantly accelerating the decomposition of multi-qubit matrices. In a…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-09-25 Lukas Hantzko , Lennart Binkowski , Sabhyata Gupta

The estimation of multi-qubit observables is a key task in quantum information science. The standard approach is to decompose a multi-qubit observable into a weighted sum of Pauli strings. The observable can then be estimated from…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-09-01 L. A. Markovich , J. Borregaard

Obtaining the expectation value of an observable on a quantum computer is a crucial step in the variational quantum algorithms. For complicated observables such as molecular electronic Hamiltonians, a common strategy is to present the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-04-20 Tzu-Ching Yen , Aadithya Ganeshram , Artur F. Izmaylov

We present a noise deconvolution technique for obtaining noiseless expectation values of noisy observables at the output of multiqubit quantum channels. For any number of qubits or in the presence of correlations, our protocol applies to…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-02-14 Simone Roncallo , Lorenzo Maccone , Chiara Macchiavello

Estimating the expectation value of an operator corresponding to an observable is a fundamental task in quantum computation. It is often impossible to obtain such estimates directly, as the computer is restricted to measuring in a fixed…

Measuring the expectation value of Pauli operators on prepared quantum states is a fundamental task in a multitude of quantum algorithms. Simultaneously measuring sets of operators allows for fewer measurements and an overall speedup of the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2019-07-19 Andrew Jena , Scott Genin , Michele Mosca

Reducing the number of measurements required to estimate the expectation value of an observable is crucial for the variational quantum eigensolver to become competitive with state-of-the-art classical algorithms. To measure complicated…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-01-09 Seonghoon Choi , Tzu-Ching Yen , Artur F. Izmaylov

Measuring expectation values of observables is an essential ingredient in variational quantum algorithms. A practical obstacle is the necessity of a large number of measurements for statistical convergence to meet requirements of precision,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-09-07 Masaya Kohda , Ryosuke Imai , Keita Kanno , Kosuke Mitarai , Wataru Mizukami , Yuya O. Nakagawa

Measuring the state of quantum computers is a highly non-trivial task, with implications for virtually all quantum algorithms. We propose a novel scheme where identical copies of a quantum state are measured jointly so that all Pauli…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-09-03 Rick P. A. Simon , Zheng Shi , Charlie Nation , Andrew Jena , Luca Dellantonio

We present a classical algorithm based on Pauli propagation for estimating expectation values of arbitrary observables on random unstructured quantum circuits across all circuit architectures and depths, including those with all-to-all…

Fault-tolerant quantum computing will require accurate estimates of the resource overhead, but standard metrics such as gate fidelity and diamond distance have been shown to be poor predictors of logical performance. We present a scalable…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-01-26 Pavithran Iyer , Aditya Jain , Stephen D. Bartlett , Joseph Emerson

Decomposing a matrix into a weighted sum of Pauli strings is a common chore of the quantum computer scientist, whom is not easily discouraged by exponential scaling. But beware, a naive decomposition can be cubically more expensive than…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-01-31 Tyson Jones

Decomposing Pauli exponentials efficiently to quantum circuits has been the subject of intense research in recent years. Pauli exponentials are an essential component of many different quantum algorithms. Due to the error-prone nature of…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-06 Lauri Vuorenkoski , Arianne Meijer-van de Griend

We introduce a new quantum noise deconvolution technique that does not rely on the complete knowledge of noise and does not require partial noise tomography. In this new method, we construct a set of observables with completely correctable…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-06-10 Nahid Ahmadvand , Laleh Memarzadeh
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