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We conduct a quantitative analysis contrasting human-written English news text with comparable large language model (LLM) output from six different LLMs that cover three different families and four sizes in total. Our analysis spans several…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-09-04 Alberto Muñoz-Ortiz , Carlos Gómez-Rodríguez , David Vilares

Phishing is recognised as a serious threat to organisations and individuals. While there have been significant technical advances in blocking phishing attacks, people remain the last line of defence after phishing emails reach their email…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-02-17 Sijie Zhuo , Robert Biddle , Yun Sing Koh , Danielle Lottridge , Giovanni Russello

The capabilities of recent large language models (LLMs) to generate high-quality content indistinguishable by humans from human-written texts raises many concerns regarding their misuse. Previous research has shown that LLMs can be…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-28 Aneta Zugecova , Dominik Macko , Ivan Srba , Robert Moro , Jakub Kopal , Katarina Marcincinova , Matus Mesarcik

The rising use of Large Language Models (LLMs) to create and disseminate malware poses a significant cybersecurity challenge due to their ability to generate and distribute attacks with ease. A single prompt can initiate a wide array of…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-09-13 Jamal Al-Karaki , Muhammad Al-Zafar Khan , Marwan Omar

Large Language Models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT and Bard, have revolutionized natural language understanding and generation. They possess deep language comprehension, human-like text generation capabilities, contextual awareness, and robust…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-03-22 Yifan Yao , Jinhao Duan , Kaidi Xu , Yuanfang Cai , Zhibo Sun , Yue Zhang

Despite sophisticated phishing email detection systems, and training and awareness programs, humans continue to be tricked by phishing emails. In an attempt to better understand why phishing email attacks still work and how best to mitigate…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-10-08 Asangi Jayatilaka , Nalin Asanka Gamagedara Arachchilage , Muhammad Ali Babar

Large Language Models (LLMs) represent a major step toward artificial general intelligence, significantly advancing our ability to interact with technology. While LLMs perform well on Natural Language Processing tasks -- such as…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-15 Brandon Smith , Mohamed Reda Bouadjenek , Tahsin Alamgir Kheya , Phillip Dawson , Sunil Aryal

Generative large language models (LLMs) have achieved state-of-the-art results on a wide range of tasks, yet they remain susceptible to backdoor attacks: carefully crafted triggers in the input can manipulate the model to produce…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-05-20 Yige Li , Hanxun Huang , Yunhan Zhao , Xingjun Ma , Jun Sun

Phishing emails continue to pose a persistent challenge to online communication, exploiting human trust and evading automated filters through realistic language and adaptive tactics. While large language models (LLMs) such as GPT-4 and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-11-10 Daniyal Ganiuly , Assel Smaiyl

Anticipating emerging attack methodologies is crucial for proactive cybersecurity. Recent advances in Large Language Models (LLMs) have enabled the automated generation of phishing messages and accelerated research into potential attack…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-30 Seiji Sato , Tetsushi Ohki , Masakatsu Nishigaki

Looking at today phishing panorama, we are able to identify two diametrically opposed approaches. On the one hand, massive phishing targets as many people as possible with generic and preformed texts. On the other hand, spear phishing…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-09-21 Alberto Giaretta , Nicola Dragoni

Recent privacy research on large language models (LLMs) has shown that they achieve near-human-level performance at inferring personal data from online texts. With ever-increasing model capabilities, existing text anonymization methods are…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-02-04 Robin Staab , Mark Vero , Mislav Balunović , Martin Vechev

Phishing and sophisticated email-based social engineering attacks disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, such as refugees and immigrant students. However, these groups remain understudied in cybersecurity research. This gap in…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Mythili Menon , Nisha Vinayaga-Sureshkanth , Alec Schon , Kaitlyn Hemberger , Murtuza Jadliwala

Large Language Models (LLMs) are valuable for text classification, but their vulnerabilities must not be disregarded. They lack robustness against adversarial examples, so it is pertinent to understand the impacts of different types of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-13 João Vitorino , Eva Maia , Isabel Praça

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed in domains such as education, mental health and customer support, where stable and consistent personas are critical for reliability. Yet, existing studies focus on narrative or…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-26 Jivnesh Sandhan , Fei Cheng , Tushar Sandhan , Yugo Murawaki

Large Language Models (LLMs) are transforming human decision-making by acting as cognitive collaborators. Yet, this promise comes with a paradox: while LLMs can improve accuracy, they may also erode independent reasoning, promote…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-09-09 Irdin Pekaric , Philipp Zech , Tom Mattson

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated great capabilities in natural language understanding and generation, largely attributed to the intricate alignment process using human feedback. While alignment has become an essential training…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-09-04 Bocheng Chen , Hanqing Guo , Guangjing Wang , Yuanda Wang , Qiben Yan

Phishing is the number one threat in the world of internet. Phishing attacks are from decades and with each passing year it is becoming a major problem for internet users as attackers are coming with unique and creative ideas to breach the…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-04-13 Ayesha Arshad , Attique Ur Rehman , Sabeen Javaid , Tahir Muhammad Ali , Javed Anjum Sheikh , Muhammad Azeem

A Large Language Model (LLM) represents a cutting-edge artificial intelligence model that generates coherent content, including grammatically precise sentences, human-like paragraphs, and syntactically accurate code snippets. LLMs can play…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2023-12-11 Robson Santos , Italo Santos , Cleyton Magalhaes , Ronnie de Souza Santos

The increasing use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, such as Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to nontrivial improvements in various tasks, including accurate authorship identification of documents. However, while LLMs…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-26 Kenneth Alperin , Rohan Leekha , Adaku Uchendu , Trang Nguyen , Srilakshmi Medarametla , Carlos Levya Capote , Seth Aycock , Charlie Dagli