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Multiple instance learning (MIL) stands as a powerful approach in weakly supervised learning, regularly employed in histological whole slide image (WSI) classification for detecting tumorous lesions. However, existing mainstream MIL methods…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-07-08 Wenhui Zhu , Xiwen Chen , Peijie Qiu , Aristeidis Sotiras , Abolfazl Razi , Yalin Wang

Whole slide image (WSI) refers to a type of high-resolution scanned tissue image, which is extensively employed in computer-assisted diagnosis (CAD). The extremely high resolution and limited availability of region-level annotations make…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-09-06 Ruijie Zhang , Qiaozhe Zhang , Yingzhuang Liu , Hao Xin , Yan Liu , Xinggang Wang

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has emerged as the best solution for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification. It consists of dividing each slide into patches, which are treated as a bag of instances labeled with a global label. MIL includes…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-05-05 Ali Mammadov , Loic Le Folgoc , Julien Adam , Anne Buronfosse , Gilles Hayem , Guillaume Hocquet , Pietro Gori

Oncologists often rely on a multitude of data, including whole-slide images (WSIs), to guide therapeutic decisions, aiming for the best patient outcome. However, predicting the prognosis of cancer patients can be a challenging task due to…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-04-01 M Rita Verdelho , Alexandre Bernardino , Catarina Barata

In computational pathology, weak supervision has become the standard for deep learning due to the gigapixel scale of WSIs and the scarcity of pixel-level annotations, with Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) established as the principal…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-17 Andreas Lolos , Theofilos Christodoulou , Aris L. Moustakas , Stergios Christodoulidis , Maria Vakalopoulou

Whole-slide image (WSI) classification is a challenging task because 1) patches from WSI lack annotation, and 2) WSI possesses unnecessary variability, e.g., stain protocol. Recently, Multiple-Instance Learning (MIL) has made significant…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-08-12 Joohyung Lee , Heejeong Nam , Kwanhyung Lee , Sangchul Hahn

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is the standard approach for whole-slide image (WSI) classification and survival prediction, where attention-based models ag gregate patch features into slide-level predictions. These models treat attention…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Xiangyu Li , Ran Su

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) for whole slide image (WSI) analysis in computational pathology often neglects instance-level learning as supervision is typically provided only at the bag level, hindering the integrated consideration of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-26 Shuyang Wu , Yifu Qiu , Ines P. Nearchou , Sandrine Prost , Jonathan A. Fallowfield , Hideki Ueno , Hitoshi Tsuda , David J. Harrison , Hakan Bilen , Timothy J. Kendall

Multi-Instance Learning (MIL) is pivotal for analyzing complex, weakly labeled datasets, such as whole-slide images (WSIs) in computational pathology, where bags comprise unordered collections of instances with sparse diagnostic relevance.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Yuedi Zhang , Zhixiang Xia , Guosheng Yin , Bin Liu

Cancer diagnosis has greatly benefited from the integration of whole-slide images (WSIs) with multiple instance learning (MIL), enabling high-resolution analysis of tissue morphology. Graph-based MIL (GNN-MIL) approaches have emerged as…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-08-27 Jongwoo Kim , Bryan Wong , Huazhu Fu , Willmer Rafell Quiñones , Youngsin Ko , Mun Yong Yi

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) gains popularity in many real-life machine learning applications due to its weakly supervised nature. However, the corresponding effort on explaining MIL lags behind, and it is usually limited to presenting…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-09-07 Dawid Rymarczyk , Adam Pardyl , Jarosław Kraus , Aneta Kaczyńska , Marek Skomorowski , Bartosz Zieliński

The acquisition of large-scale, precisely labeled datasets for person re-identification (ReID) poses a significant challenge. Weakly supervised ReID has begun to address this issue, although its performance lags behind fully supervised…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-02-13 Jacob Tyo , Zachary C. Lipton

Analyzing high resolution whole slide images (WSIs) with regard to information across multiple scales poses a significant challenge in digital pathology. Multi-instance learning (MIL) is a common solution for working with high resolution…

In recent years, the integration of pre-trained foundational models with multiple instance learning (MIL) has improved diagnostic accuracy in computational pathology. However, existing MIL methods focus on optimizing feature extractors and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-24 Le Feng , Li Xiao

Introducing interpretability and reasoning into Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods for Whole Slide Image (WSI) analysis is challenging, given the complexity of gigapixel slides. Traditionally, MIL interpretability is limited to…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-21 Saarthak Kapse , Pushpak Pati , Srijan Das , Jingwei Zhang , Chao Chen , Maria Vakalopoulou , Joel Saltz , Dimitris Samaras , Rajarsi R. Gupta , Prateek Prasanna

Accurate analysis of histopathological images is critical for disease diagnosis and treatment planning. Whole-slide images (WSIs), which digitize tissue specimens at gigapixel resolution, are fundamental to this process but require…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-07 Enhui Chai , Sicheng Chen , Tianyi Zhang , Chad Wong , Kecheng Huang , Zeyu Liu , Fei Xia

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has become the leading approach for extracting discriminative features from whole slide images (WSIs) in computational pathology. Attention-based MIL methods can identify key patches but tend to overlook…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Lubin Gan , Xiaoman Wu , Jing Zhang , Zhifeng Wang , Linhao Qu , Siying Wu , Xiaoyan Sun

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has been increasingly used in the classification of histopathology whole slide images (WSIs). However, MIL approaches for this specific classification problem still face unique challenges, particularly those…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-03-24 Hongrun Zhang , Yanda Meng , Yitian Zhao , Yihong Qiao , Xiaoyun Yang , Sarah E. Coupland , Yalin Zheng

Bag-based Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) approaches have emerged as the mainstream methodology for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification. However, most existing methods adopt a segmented training strategy, which first extracts features…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-13 Jiangping Wen , Jinyu Wen , Meie Fang

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods allow for gigapixel Whole-Slide Image (WSI) analysis with only slide-level annotations. Interpretability is crucial for safely deploying such algorithms in high-stakes medical domains. Traditional…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-01-07 Susu Sun , Leslie Tessier , Frédérique Meeuwsen , Clément Grisi , Dominique van Midden , Geert Litjens , Christian F. Baumgartner