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The rapid adoption of LLMs in both research and industry highlights the challenges of deploying them safely and reveals a gap in the systematic evaluation of toxicity benchmarks. As organizations increasingly rely on these benchmarks to…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Regina Gugg , Selina Niederländer , Andreas Stöckl , Martin Flechl

Evaluating clustering quality with reliable evaluation metrics like normalized mutual information (NMI) requires labeled data that can be expensive to annotate. We focus on the underexplored problem of estimating clustering quality with…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-04 Nihal V. Nayak , Ethan R. Elenberg , Clemens Rosenbaum

Clustering is widely used in unsupervised learning to find homogeneous groups of observations within a dataset. However, clustering mixed-type data remains a challenge, as few existing approaches are suited for this task. This study…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-11-26 Badih Ghattas , Alvaro Sanchez San-Benito

Given the potential difficulties in obtaining large quantities of labelled data, many works have explored the use of deep semi-supervised learning, which uses both labelled and unlabelled data to train a neural network architecture. The…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-09-02 Philip Sellars , Angelica Aviles-Rivero , Carola Bibiane Schönlieb

Generalized $k$-means can be incorporated with any similarity or dissimilarity measure for clustering. By choosing the dissimilarity measure as the well known likelihood ratio or $F$-statistic, this work proposes a method based on…

Methodology · Statistics 2020-08-11 Tonglin Zhang , Ge Lin

A core part of scientific peer review involves providing expert critiques that directly assess the scientific claims a paper makes. While it is now possible to automatically generate plausible (if generic) reviews, ensuring that these…

Benchmark datasets in computer vision often contain off-topic images, near duplicates, and label errors, leading to inaccurate estimates of model performance. In this paper, we revisit the task of data cleaning and formalize it as either a…

This study evaluates metrics for tasks such as classification, regression, clustering, correlation analysis, statistical tests, segmentation, and image-to-image (I2I) translation. Metrics were compared across Python libraries, R packages,…

Large Language Models (LLMs) have been used as relevance assessors for Information Retrieval (IR) evaluation collection creation due to reduced cost and increased scalability as compared to human assessors. While previous research has…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-01-06 Samaneh Mohtadi , Gianluca Demartini

This study introduces a framework for evaluating consistency in large language model (LLM) binary text classification, addressing the lack of established reliability assessment methods. Adapting psychometric principles, we determine sample…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-23 Fadel M. Megahed , Ying-Ju Chen , L. Allision Jones-Farmer , Younghwa Lee , Jiawei Brooke Wang , Inez M. Zwetsloot

LLMs and AI chatbots have improved people's efficiency in various fields. However, the necessary knowledge for answering the question may be beyond the models' knowledge boundaries. To mitigate this issue, many researchers try to introduce…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-15 Yi Liu , Lianzhe Huang , Shicheng Li , Sishuo Chen , Hao Zhou , Fandong Meng , Jie Zhou , Xu Sun

In unsupervised machine learning, agreement between partitions is commonly assessed with so-called external validity indices. Researchers tend to use and report indices that quantify agreement between two partitions for all clusters…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2019-01-08 Matthijs J. Warrens , Hanneke van der Hoef

Cluster analysis is a popular unsupervised learning tool used in many disciplines to identify heterogeneous sub-populations within a sample. However, validating cluster analysis results and determining the number of clusters in a data set…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-04-26 Ali Turfah , Xiaoquan Wen

There are two notoriously hard problems in cluster analysis, estimating the number of clusters, and checking whether the population to be clustered is not actually homogeneous. Given a dataset, a clustering method and a cluster validation…

Methodology · Statistics 2015-02-10 Christian Hennig , Chien-Ju Lin

Large language models (LLMs) are notorious for hallucinating, i.e., producing erroneous claims in their output. Such hallucinations can be dangerous, as occasional factual inaccuracies in the generated text might be obscured by the rest of…

This paper considers the challenge of evaluating a set of classifiers, as done in shared task evaluations like the KDD Cup or NIST TREC, without expert labels. While expert labels provide the traditional cornerstone for evaluating…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2012-12-06 Hyun Joon Jung , Matthew Lease

The task of determining labels of all network nodes based on the knowledge about network structure and labels of some training subset of nodes is called the within-network classification. It may happen that none of the labels of the nodes…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2015-10-06 Tomasz Kajdanowicz , Radosław Michalski , Katarzyna Musiał , Przemysław Kazienko

With the inclusion of smart meters, electricity load consumption data can be fetched for individual consumer buildings at high temporal resolutions. Availability of such data has made it possible to study daily load demand profiles of the…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2021-08-04 Mayank Jain , Mukta Jain , Tarek AlSkaif , Soumyabrata Dev

The overwhelming majority of empirical research that uses cluster-robust inference assumes that the clustering structure is known, even though there are often several possible ways in which a dataset could be clustered. We propose two tests…

Econometrics · Economics 2023-03-14 James G. MacKinnon , Morten Ørregaard Nielsen , Matthew D. Webb

Clustering is frequently used in the energy domain to identify dominant electricity consumption patterns of households, which can be used to construct customer archetypes for long term energy planning. Selecting a useful set of clusters…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-12-02 Wiebke Toussaint , Deshendran Moodley