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We define the entanglement-gradient routing scheme for quantum repeater networks. The routing framework fuses the fundamentals of swarm intelligence and quantum Shannon theory. Swarm intelligence provides nature-inspired solutions for…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-08-24 Laszlo Gyongyosi , Sandor Imre

Quantum entanglement is the key to quantum communications over considerable distances. The first step for entanglement distribution among quantum communication nodes is to generate link-level Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) pairs between…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-10-30 Karim Elsayed , Wasiur R. KhudaBukhsh , Amr Rizk

We consider the problem of optimising the achievable EPR-pair distribution rate between multiple source-destination pairs in a quantum internet, where the repeaters may perform a probabilistic bell-state measurement and we may impose a…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-11-02 Kaushik Chakraborty , David Elkouss , Bruno Rijsman , Stephanie Wehner

Entanglement purification protocols, designed to improve the fidelity of Bell states over quantum networks for inter-node communications, have attracted significant attention over the last few decades. These protocols have great potential…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-05-07 Yue Shi , Chenxu Liu , Samuel Stein , Meng Wang , Muqing Zheng , Ang Li

Quantum teleportation enables high-security communications through end-to-end quantum entangled pairs. End-to-end entangled pairs are created by using swapping processes to consume short entangled pairs and generate long pairs. However, due…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-10-30 Shao-Min Huang , Cheng-Yang Cheng , Ming-Huang Chien , Jian-Jhih Kuo , Chih-Yu Wang

Entanglement purification is to distill high-quality entangled states from low-quality entangled states. It is a key step in quantum repeaters, determines the efficiency and communication rates of quantum communication protocols, and is…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-03-21 Cen-Xiao Huang , Xiao-Min Hu1 , Bi-Heng Liu , Lan Zhou , Yu-Bo Sheng , Chuan-Feng Li , Guang-Can Guo

There will be a fast-paced shift from conventional network systems to novel quantum networks that are supported by the quantum entanglement and teleportation, key technologies of the quantum era, to enable secured data transmissions in the…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2022-07-26 Tu N. Nguyen , Dung H. P. Nguyen , Dang H. Pham , Bing-Hong Liu , Hoa N. Nguyen

Existing quantum routing implicitly mimics classical routing principles, with finding the ``best'' path (aka pathfinding), according to a selected routing metric, as a core mechanism for establishing end-to-end entanglement. However,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-01-30 Si-Yi Chen , Angela Sara Cacciapuoti , Marcello Caleffi

As quantum key distribution becomes increasingly practical, questions of how to effectively employ it in large-scale networks and over large distances becomes increasingly important. To that end, in this work, we model the performance of…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-08-03 Omar Amer , Walter O. Krawec , Bing Wang

Optimal routing in quantum-repeater networks requires finding the best path that connects a pair of end nodes. Most previous work on routing in quantum networks assumes utility functions that are isotonic, meaning that the ordering of two…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-11-26 Maxwell Tang , Garrett Hinkley , Kenneth Goodenough , Stefan Krastanov , Guus Avis

Entanglement generation in long-distance quantum networks is a difficult process due to resource limitations and the probabilistic nature of entanglement swapping. To maximize success probability, existing quantum routing algorithms employ…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2025-05-15 Tasdiqul Islam , Md Arifuzzaman , Engin Arslan

In quantum networks multipath entanglement purification (MEP) between a pair of source-destination nodes can substantially strengthen their entanglement connection. An efficient MEP strategy can therefore increase the size of the network…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-08-28 Md Sohel Mondal , Siddhartha Santra

Distributed quantum networks are not merely information conduits but intricate systems that embody the principles of quantum mechanics. In our study, we examine the underlying mechanisms of quantum connectivity within a distributed…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2025-03-07 Mst Shapna Akter , Md. Shazzad Hossain Shaon , Tasmin Karim , Md. Fahim Sultan , Emran Kanaan

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) networks enable unconditionally secure key exchange using quantum mechanical principles. However, routing cryptographic keys across multi-hop quantum networks introduces challenges unique to quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-11-20 Ivan Cvitic , Dragan Perakovic , Armando Nolasco Pinto

We introduce entanglement purification protocols for d-level systems (qudits) with improved efficiency as compared to previous protocols. While we focus on protocols for bipartite systems, we also propose generalizations to multi-partite…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-10-17 Jorge Miguel-Ramiro , Wolfgang Dür

Entanglement distribution is a core mechanism for the future quantum Internet. The quantum world is, however, a faulty environment. Hence, successful entanglement swapping is error-prone. The occurrence of quantum state errors can be…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-02-28 Michel Barbeau , Joaquin Garcia-Alfaro , Evangelos Kranakis

Quantum cloud computing (QCC) offers a promising approach to efficiently provide quantum computing resources, such as quantum computers, to perform resource-intensive tasks. Like traditional cloud computing platforms, QCC providers can…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-07-26 Rakpong Kaewpuang , Minrui Xu , Dinh Thai Hoang , Dusit Niyato , Han Yu , Ruidong Li , Zehui Xiong , Jiawen Kang

The entanglement distribution networks with various topologies are mainly implemented by active wavelength multiplexing routing strategies. However, designing an entanglement routing scheme, which achieves the maximized network connections…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-02-01 Hui Han , Bo Liu , Bangying Tang , Siyu Xiong , Jinquan Huang , Wanrong Yu , Shuhui Chen

Distributed quantum computing (DQC) holds immense promise in harnessing the potential of quantum computing by interconnecting multiple small quantum computers (QCs) through a quantum data network (QDN). Establishing long-distance quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-04-16 Lei Wang , Jieming Bian , Jie Xu

Remote quantum entanglement can enable numerous applications including distributed quantum computation, secure communication, and precision sensing. In this paper, we consider how a quantum network-nodes equipped with limited quantum…