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The field of information retrieval often works with limited and noisy data in an attempt to classify documents into subjective categories, e.g., relevance, sentiment and controversy. We typically quantify a notion of agreement to understand…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2018-06-14 John Foley

Multi-class classification annotations have significantly advanced AI applications, with truth inference serving as a critical technique for aggregating noisy and biased annotations. Existing state-of-the-art methods typically model each…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-08-05 Ju Chen , Jun Feng , Shenyu Zhang

State-of-the-art machine learning models require access to significant amount of annotated data in order to achieve the desired level of performance. While unlabelled data can be largely available and even abundant, annotation process can…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-15 Rahaf Aljundi , Nikolay Chumerin , Daniel Olmeda Reino

The reliability of supervised machine learning systems depends on the accuracy and availability of ground truth labels. However, the process of human annotation, being prone to error, introduces the potential for noisy labels, which can…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-09-19 David Tschirschwitz , Christian Benz , Morris Florek , Henrik Norderhus , Benno Stein , Volker Rodehorst

Sequence labeling is a fundamental framework for various natural language processing problems. Its performance is largely influenced by the annotation quality and quantity in supervised learning scenarios, and obtaining ground truth labels…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-04-17 Ouyu Lan , Xiao Huang , Bill Yuchen Lin , He Jiang , Liyuan Liu , Xiang Ren

Annotating data via crowdsourcing is time-consuming and expensive. Due to these costs, dataset creators often have each annotator label only a small subset of the data. This leads to sparse datasets with examples that are marked by few…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-06 London Lowmanstone , Ruyuan Wan , Risako Owan , Jaehyung Kim , Dongyeop Kang

Solving complex classification tasks using deep neural networks typically requires large amounts of annotated data. However, corresponding class labels are noisy when provided by error-prone annotators, e.g., crowdworkers. Training standard…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-25 Marek Herde , Denis Huseljic , Bernhard Sick

Speech emotion recognition systems often predict a consensus value generated from the ratings of multiple annotators. However, these models have limited ability to predict the annotation of any one person. Alternatively, models can learn to…

Sound · Computer Science 2025-09-17 James Tavernor , Emily Mower Provost

Safety policies define what constitutes safe and unsafe AI outputs, guiding data annotation and model development. However, annotation disagreement is pervasive and can stem from multiple sources such as operational failures (annotators…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-08 Alex Oesterling , Donghao Ren , Yannick Assogba , Dominik Moritz , Sunnie S. Y. Kim , Leon Gatys , Fred Hohman

Recent works have emerged in multi-annotator learning that shift focus from Consensus-oriented Learning (CoL), which aggregates multiple annotations into a single ground-truth prediction, to Individual Tendency Learning (ITL), which models…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-02 Liyun Zhang , Fengkai Liu , Xuanmeng Sha , Bowen Wang , Hong Liu , Zheng Lian

Our interpretation of value concepts is shaped by our sociocultural background and lived experiences, and is thus subjective. Recognizing individual value interpretations is important for developing AI systems that can align with diverse…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-03 Adina Nicola Dobrinoiu , Ana Cristiana Marcu , Amir Homayounirad , Luciano Cavalcante Siebert , Enrico Liscio

Recent work has explored the use of personal information in the form of persona sentences or self-disclosures to improve modeling of individual characteristics and prediction of annotator labels for subjective tasks. The volume of personal…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-27 Kieran Henderson , Kian Omoomi , Vasudha Varadarajan , Allison Lahnala , Charles Welch

Crowdsourcing is a relatively economic and efficient solution to collect annotations from the crowd through online platforms. Answers collected from workers with different expertise may be noisy and unreliable, and the quality of annotated…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-01-08 Jingzheng Tu , Guoxian Yu , Jun Wang , Carlotta Domeniconi , Xiangliang Zhang

In many classification tasks, there is no definitive ground truth, only human judgments that may disagree. We address two challenges that arise in such settings: (1) how to use human raters to score classifiers, and (2) how to use them for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-24 Paul Resnick , Yuqing Kong , Grant Schoenebeck , Tim Weninger

Annotated data is an essential ingredient in natural language processing for training and evaluating machine learning models. It is therefore very desirable for the annotations to be of high quality. Recent work, however, has shown that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-09-27 Jan-Christoph Klie , Bonnie Webber , Iryna Gurevych

Many NLP tasks exhibit human label variation, where different annotators give different labels to the same texts. This variation is known to depend, at least in part, on the sociodemographics of annotators. Recent research aims to model…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-03 Matthias Orlikowski , Paul Röttger , Philipp Cimiano , Dirk Hovy

Estimation of semantic similarity is crucial for a variety of natural language processing (NLP) tasks. In the absence of a general theory of semantic information, many papers rely on human annotators as the source of ground truth for…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-09-27 Shaul Solomon , Adam Cohn , Hernan Rosenblum , Chezi Hershkovitz , Ivan P. Yamshchikov

Natural language processing research has begun to embrace the notion of annotator subjectivity, motivated by variations in labelling. This approach understands each annotator's view as valid, which can be highly suitable for tasks that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Amanda Cercas Curry , Gavin Abercrombie , Zeerak Talat

Supervised classification algorithms are used to solve a growing number of real-life problems around the globe. Their performance is strictly connected with the quality of labels used in training. Unfortunately, acquiring good-quality…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-07-08 Daniel Kałuża , Andrzej Janusz , Dominik Ślęzak

Clinical dataset labels are rarely certain as annotators disagree and confidence is not uniform across cases. Typical aggregation procedures, such as majority voting, obscure this variability. In simple experiments on medical imaging…