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The concept of counterfactual explanations (CE) has emerged as one of the important concepts to understand the inner workings of complex AI systems. In this paper, we translate the idea of CEs to linear optimization and propose, motivate,…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2024-05-27 Jannis Kurtz , Ş. İlker Birbil , Dick den Hertog

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) are advocated as being ideally suited to providing algorithmic recourse for subjects affected by the predictions of machine learning models. While CEs can be beneficial to affected individuals, recent work…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-06 Junqi Jiang , Francesco Leofante , Antonio Rago , Francesca Toni

Explainable AI (XAI) is an increasingly important area of machine learning research, which aims to make black-box models transparent and interpretable. In this paper, we propose a novel approach to XAI that uses the so-called counterfactual…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-08-02 Bastian Pfeifer , Mateusz Krzyzinski , Hubert Baniecki , Anna Saranti , Andreas Holzinger , Przemyslaw Biecek

The growing complexity of AI systems has intensified the need for transparency through Explainable AI (XAI). Counterfactual explanations (CFs) offer actionable "what-if" scenarios on three levels: Local CFs providing instance-specific…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Oleksii Furman , Patryk Wielopolski , Łukasz Lenkiewicz , Jerzy Stefanowski , Maciej Zięba

Counterfactual explanations play an important role in detecting bias and improving the explainability of data-driven classification models. A counterfactual explanation (CE) is a minimal perturbed data point for which the decision of the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-27 Donato Maragno , Jannis Kurtz , Tabea E. Röber , Rob Goedhart , Ş. Ilker Birbil , Dick den Hertog

Counterfactuals operationalised through algorithmic recourse have become a powerful tool to make artificial intelligence systems explainable. Conceptually, given an individual classified as y -- the factual -- we seek actions such that…

There has been a recent resurgence of interest in explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) that aims to reduce the opaqueness of AI-based decision-making systems, allowing humans to scrutinize and trust them. Prior work in this context has…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-06-24 Sainyam Galhotra , Romila Pradhan , Babak Salimi

Despite their high accuracies, modern complex image classifiers cannot be trusted for sensitive tasks due to their unknown decision-making process and potential biases. Counterfactual explanations are very effective in providing…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-06-13 Kamran Alipour , Aditya Lahiri , Ehsan Adeli , Babak Salimi , Michael Pazzani

Visual counterfactual explainers (VCEs) are a straightforward and promising approach to enhancing the transparency of image classifiers. VCEs complement other types of explanations, such as feature attribution, by revealing the specific…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Sidney Bender , Jan Herrmann , Klaus-Robert Müller , Grégoire Montavon

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) are methods for generating an alternative scenario that produces a different desirable outcome. For example, if a student is predicted to fail a course, then counterfactual explanations can provide the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-01-09 Bevan I. Smith

Counterfactual explanation is an important Explainable AI technique to explain machine learning predictions. Despite being studied actively, existing optimization-based methods often assume that the underlying machine-learning model is…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2022-06-01 Wenzhuo Yang , Jia Li , Caiming Xiong , Steven C. H. Hoi

Counterfactual explanations have emerged as a prominent method in Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI), providing intuitive and actionable insights into Machine Learning model decisions. In contrast to other traditional feature…

Counterfactual Explanation (CE) techniques have garnered attention as a means to provide insights to the users engaging with AI systems. While extensively researched in domains such as medical imaging and autonomous vehicles, Graph…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-01-12 Mario Alfonso Prado-Romero , Bardh Prenkaj , Giovanni Stilo

In recent years, there has been an explosion of AI research on counterfactual explanations as a solution to the problem of eXplainable AI (XAI). These explanations seem to offer technical, psychological and legal benefits over other…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-03 Mark T Keane , Eoin M Kenny , Eoin Delaney , Barry Smyth

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) offer interpretable insights into machine learning predictions by answering ``what if?" questions. However, in real-world settings where models are frequently updated, existing counterfactual explanations…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-12 Jamie Duell , Xiuyi Fan

Counterfactual explanations promote explainability in machine learning models by answering the question "how should an input instance be perturbed to obtain a desired predicted label?". The comparison of this instance before and after…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-11-09 Jing Ma , Ruocheng Guo , Saumitra Mishra , Aidong Zhang , Jundong Li

Counterfactual Explanations (CEs) help address the question: How can the factors that influence the prediction of a predictive model be changed to achieve a more favorable outcome from a user's perspective? Thus, they bear the potential to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-27 Xuan Zhao , Klaus Broelemann , Gjergji Kasneci

In eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI), several counterfactual explainers have been proposed, each focusing on some desirable properties of counterfactual instances: minimality, actionability, stability, diversity, plausibility,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-08-30 Riccardo Guidotti , Salvatore Ruggieri

Counterfactual explanation is one branch of interpretable machine learning that produces a perturbation sample to change the model's original decision. The generated samples can act as a recommendation for end-users to achieve their desired…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-28 Tri Dung Duong , Qian Li , Guandong Xu

As deep learning models are increasingly used in safety-critical applications, explainability and trustworthiness become major concerns. For simple images, such as low-resolution face portraits, synthesizing visual counterfactual…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-20 Paul Jacob , Éloi Zablocki , Hédi Ben-Younes , Mickaël Chen , Patrick Pérez , Matthieu Cord