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Stochastic neighbor embedding (SNE) methods $t$-SNE, UMAP are two most popular dimensionality reduction methods for data visualization. Contrastive learning, especially self-supervised contrastive learning (SSCL), has showed great success…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-18 Yi Zhang

Non-linear dimensionality reduction can be performed by \textit{manifold learning} approaches, such as Stochastic Neighbour Embedding (SNE), Locally Linear Embedding (LLE) and Isometric Feature Mapping (ISOMAP). These methods aim to produce…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2021-12-09 Theodoulos Rodosthenous , Vahid Shahrezaei , Marina Evangelou

Neighbor embedding methods $t$-SNE and UMAP are the de facto standard for visualizing high-dimensional datasets. Motivated from entirely different viewpoints, their loss functions appear to be unrelated. In practice, they yield strongly…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-06 Sebastian Damrich , Jan Niklas Böhm , Fred A. Hamprecht , Dmitry Kobak

Stochastic neighbor embedding (SNE) and related nonlinear manifold learning algorithms achieve high-quality low-dimensional representations of similarity data, but are notoriously slow to train. We propose a generic formulation of embedding…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2012-06-22 Max Vladymyrov , Miguel Carreira-Perpinan

Widely used pipelines for analyzing high-dimensional data utilize two-dimensional visualizations. These are created, for instance, via t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE). A crucial element of the t-SNE embedding procedure…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-06 Martin Skrodzki , Nicolas F. Chaves-de-Plaza , Thomas Höllt , Elmar Eisemann , Klaus Hildebrandt

Central to the widespread use of t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) is the conviction that it produces visualizations whose structure roughly matches that of the input. To the contrary, we prove that (1) the strength of the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-03 Noah Bergam , Szymon Snoeck , Nakul Verma

This paper introduces NN-STNE, a neural network using t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) as a hidden layer to reduce input dimensions by mapping long time-series data into shapelet membership probabilities. A Gaussian…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-07 Zhicong Xian , Tabish Chaudhary , Jürgen Bock

t-SNE is a popular tool for embedding multi-dimensional datasets into two or three dimensions. However, it has a large computational cost, especially when the input data has many dimensions. Many use t-SNE to embed the output of a neural…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-12-04 Rikhav Shah , Sandeep Silwal

Neighbor Embedding (NE) aims to preserve pairwise similarities between data items and has been shown to yield an effective principle for data visualization. However, even the best existing NE methods such as Stochastic Neighbor Embedding…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-09-15 Zhirong Yang , Yuwei Chen , Denis Sedov , Samuel Kaski , Jukka Corander

There has been an intense recent activity in embedding of very high dimensional and nonlinear data structures, much of it in the data science and machine learning literature. We survey this activity in four parts. In the first part we cover…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-09-01 Dag Tjøstheim , Martin Jullum , Anders Løland

Unsupervised machine learning has recently gained much attention in the field of molecular dynamics (MD). Particularly, dimensionality reduction techniques have been regularly employed to analyze large volumes of high-dimensional MD data to…

Chemical Physics · Physics 2025-05-23 Patryk Tajs , Mateusz Skarupski , Jakub Rydzewski

Dimensionality reduction techniques aim at representing high-dimensional data in low-dimensional spaces to extract hidden and useful information or facilitate visual understanding and interpretation of the data. However, few of them take…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-25 Yan Sun , Yi Han , Jicong Fan

This work considers large-data asymptotics for t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (tSNE), a widely-used non-linear dimension reduction algorithm. We identify an appropriate continuum limit of the tSNE objective function, which can…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2024-10-18 Ryan Murray , Adam Pickarski

Modern datasets and models are notoriously difficult to explore and analyze due to their inherent high dimensionality and massive numbers of samples. Existing visualization methods which employ dimensionality reduction to two or three…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-08-01 David M. Chan , Roshan Rao , Forrest Huang , John F. Canny

Across many scientific fields, measurements often represent the number of times an event occurs. For example, a document can be represented by word occurrence counts, neural activity by spike counts per time window, or online communication…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-04-21 Noga Mudrik , Adam S. Charles

T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (tSNE) is a popular and prize-winning approach for dimensionality reduction and visualizing high-dimensional data. However, tSNE is non-parametric: once visualization is built, tSNE is not…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2017-08-17 Andrey Boytsov , Francois Fouquet , Thomas Hartmann , Yves LeTraon

The paper presents an O(N log N)-implementation of t-SNE -- an embedding technique that is commonly used for the visualization of high-dimensional data in scatter plots and that normally runs in O(N^2). The new implementation uses…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2013-03-11 Laurens van der Maaten

Visualization methods based on the nearest neighbor graph, such as t-SNE or UMAP, are widely used for visualizing high-dimensional data. Yet, these approaches only produce meaningful results if the nearest neighbors themselves are…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-06 Jan Niklas Böhm , Philipp Berens , Dmitry Kobak

Adversarial examples, designed to trick Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) into producing wrong outputs, highlight vulnerabilities in these models. Exploring these weaknesses is crucial for developing defenses, and so, we propose a method to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-21 Inês Valentim , Nuno Antunes , Nuno Lourenço

Dimensionality reduction methods such as t-SNE and UMAP are popular methods for visualizing data with a potential (latent) clustered structure. They are known to group data points at the same time as they embed them, resulting in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-04 Elizabeth Coda , Ery Arias-Castro , Gal Mishne