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The proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) necessitates valid evaluation methods to guide downstream applications and actionable future improvements. The Item Response Theory (IRT) has recently emerged as a promising framework for…

Methodology · Statistics 2025-12-12 Zhiyu Xu , Jia Liu , Yixin Wang , Yuqi Gu

In certain academic systems, a student can enroll for an exam immediately after the end of the teaching period or can postpone it to any later examination session, so that the grade is missing until the exam is not attempted. We propose an…

Methodology · Statistics 2016-09-22 Silvia Bacci , Francesco Bartolucci , Leonardo Grilli , Carla Rampichini

Multidimensional item response theory is a statistical test theory used to estimate the latent skills of learners and the difficulty levels of problems based on test results. Both compensatory and non-compensatory models have been proposed…

Methodology · Statistics 2025-07-22 Hiroshi Tamano , Hideitsu Hino , Daichi Mochihashi

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated exceptional performance across a wide range of natural language tasks. However, selecting the optimal LLM to respond to a user query often necessitates a delicate balance between performance…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-06-24 Wei Song , Zhenya Huang , Cheng Cheng , Weibo Gao , Bihan Xu , GuanHao Zhao , Fei Wang , Runze Wu

Most datasets suffer from partial or complete missing values, which has downstream limitations on the available models on which to test the data and on any statistical inferences that can be made from the data. Several imputation techniques…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-02-09 Adrienne Kline , Yuan Luo

It is widely believed that a joint factor analysis of item responses and response time (RT) may yield more precise ability scores that are conventionally predicted from responses only. For this purpose, a simple-structure factor model is…

Applications · Statistics 2025-01-01 Yang Liu , Weimeng Wang

The evaluation of large language models (LLMs) via benchmarks is widespread, yet inconsistencies between different leaderboards and poor separability among top models raise concerns about their ability to accurately reflect authentic model…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-19 Hongli Zhou , Hui Huang , Ziqing Zhao , Lvyuan Han , Huicheng Wang , Kehai Chen , Muyun Yang , Wei Bao , Jian Dong , Bing Xu , Conghui Zhu , Hailong Cao , Tiejun Zhao

Recent advances in artificial intelligence for education leverage generative large language models, including using them to predict open-ended student responses rather than their correctness only. However, the black-box nature of these…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-15 Nigel Fernandez , Andrew Lan

Evaluating the abilities of learners is a fundamental objective in the field of education. In particular, there is an increasing need to assess higher-order abilities such as expressive skills and logical thinking. Constructed-response…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-26 Masaki Uto , Yuma Ito

Evaluation of NLP methods requires testing against a previously vetted gold-standard test set and reporting standard metrics (accuracy/precision/recall/F1). The current assumption is that all items in a given test set are equal with regards…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2016-09-26 John P. Lalor , Hao Wu , Hong Yu

Evaluating large language models (LLMs) typically requires thousands of benchmark items, making the process expensive, slow, and increasingly impractical at scale. Existing evaluation protocols rely on average accuracy over fixed item sets,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Peiyu Li , Xiuxiu Tang , Si Chen , Ying Cheng , Ronald Metoyer , Ting Hua , Nitesh V. Chawla

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly used as proxy students in the development of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) and in piloting test questions. However, to what extent these proxy students accurately emulate the behavior and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-14 KV Aditya Srivatsa , Kaushal Kumar Maurya , Ekaterina Kochmar

Recent years have witnessed a surge in the number of large language models (LLMs), yet efficiently managing and utilizing these vast resources remains a significant challenge. In this work, we explore how to learn compact representations of…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-10-02 Jianhao Chen , Chenxu Wang , Gengrui Zhang , Peng Ye , Lei Bai , Wei Hu , Yuzhong Qu , Shuyue Hu

Experimental evaluation is crucial in AI research, especially for assessing algorithms across diverse tasks. Many studies often evaluate a limited set of algorithms, failing to fully understand their strengths and weaknesses within a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-04 Brodie Oldfield , Sevvandi Kandanaarachchi , Ziqi Xu , Mario Andrés Muñoz

Incorporating Item Response Theory (IRT) into NLP tasks can provide valuable information about model performance and behavior. Traditionally, IRT models are learned using human response pattern (RP) data, presenting a significant bottleneck…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-09-02 John P. Lalor , Hao Wu , Hong Yu

Few models have been more ubiquitous in their respective fields than Bayesian knowledge tracing and item response theory. Both of these models were developed to analyze data on learners. However, the study designs that these models are…

Methodology · Statistics 2018-10-15 Benjamin Deonovic , Michael Yudelson , Maria Bolsinova , Meirav Attali , Gunter Maris

Computerized adaptive tests (CATs) play a crucial role in educational assessment and diagnostic screening in behavioral health. Unlike traditional linear tests that administer a fixed set of pre-assembled items, CATs adaptively tailor the…

Methodology · Statistics 2026-05-11 Jiguang Li , Robert Gibbons , Veronika Rockova

We propose a class of Item Response Theory models for items with ordinal polytomous responses, which extends an existing class of multidimensional models for dichotomously-scored items measuring more than one latent trait. In the proposed…

Methodology · Statistics 2012-01-24 Silvia Bacci , Francesco Bartolucci , Michela Gnaldi

Item response theory (IRT) models typically rely on a normality assumption for subject-specific latent traits, which is often unrealistic in practice. Semiparametric extensions based on Dirichlet process mixtures offer a more flexible…

The growing dependence on eTextbooks and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) has led to an increase in the amount of students' learning data. By carefully analyzing this data, educators can identify difficult exercises, and evaluate the…

Data Structures and Algorithms · Computer Science 2022-11-28 Ahmed Abd Elrahman , Ahmed I. Taloba , Mohammed F. Farghally , Taysir Hassan A Soliman