The spectral radius of $1$-planar graphs without complete subgraphs

A 1-planar graph refers to a graph that can be drawn on the plane such that each edge has at most one crossing. In this paper, focusing on the spectral Tur\'{a}n-type problems of $1$-planar graphs, we determine completely the unique spectral extremal graph among all $K_3$-free or $K_4$-free $1$-planar graphs, and provide a characterization of the spectral extremal graphs for $K_5$-free $1$-planar graphs, confining the candidates to a specific, small family.