Non-existence of the box dimension for dynamically invariant sets

One of the key challenges in the dimension theory of smooth dynamical systems is in establishing whether or not the Hausdorff, lower and upper box dimensions coincide for invariant sets. For sets invariant under conformal dynamics, these three dimensions always coincide. On the other hand, considerable attention has been given to examples of sets invariant under non-conformal dynamics whose Hausdorff and box dimensions do not coincide. These constructions exploit the fact that the Hausdorff and box dimensions quantify size in fundamentally different ways, the former in terms of covers by sets of varying diameters and the latter in terms of covers by sets of fixed diameters. In this article we construct the first example of a dynamically invariant set with distinct lower and upper box dimensions. Heuristically, this describes that if size is quantified in terms of covers by sets of equal diameters, a dynamically invariant set can appear bigger when viewed at certain resolutions than at others.