Motivic Mahowald invariants over general base fields

The motivic Mahowald invariant was introduced in \cite{Qui19a} and \cite{Qui19b} to study periodicity in the $\mathbb{C}$- and $\mathbb{R}$-motivic stable stems. In this paper, we define the motivic Mahowald invariant over any field $F$ of characteristic not two and use it to study periodicity in the $F$-motivic stable stems. In particular, we construct lifts of some of Adams' classical $v_1$-periodic families \cite{Ada66} and identify them as the motivic Mahowald invariants of powers of $2+\rho \eta$.