1Q: First-Generation Wireless Systems Integrating Classical and Quantum Communication
Abstract
We introduce the concept of 1Q, the first wireless generation of integrated classical and quantum communication. 1Q features quantum base stations (QBSs) that support entanglement distribution via free-space optical links alongside traditional radio communications. Key new components include quantum cells, quantum user equipment (QUEs), and hybrid resource allocation spanning classical time-frequency and quantum entanglement domains. Several application scenarios are discussed and illustrated through system design requirements for quantum key distribution, blind quantum computing, and distributed quantum sensing. A range of unique quantum constraints are identified, including decoherence timing, fidelity requirements, and the interplay between quantum and classical error probabilities. Protocol adaptations extend cellular connection management to incorporate entanglement generation, distribution, and handover procedures, expanding the Quantum Internet to the cellular wireless.
Cite
@article{arxiv.2509.14731,
title = {1Q: First-Generation Wireless Systems Integrating Classical and Quantum Communication},
author = {Petar Popovski and Čedomir Stefanović and Beatriz Soret and Israel Leyva-Mayorga and Shashi Raj Pandey and René Bødker Christensen and Jakob Kaltoft Søndergaard and Kristian Skafte Jensen and Thomas Garm Pedersen and Angela Sara Cacciapuoti and Lajos Hanzo},
journal= {arXiv preprint arXiv:2509.14731},
year = {2026}
}
Comments
14 pages, 8 figures. Accepted for publication in IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine. This work is funded the Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), through the Center CLASSIQUE, details at https://www.classique.aau.dk/. Cacciapuoti's work has been funded by the EU under Horizon Europe ERC-CoG grant QNattyNet, n.101169850, details at https://qnattynet.quantuminternet.it