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Knowledge tracing (KT) models are commonly evaluated by training on early interactions from all students and testing on later responses. While effective for measuring average predictive performance, this evaluation design obscures a cold…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-15 Indronil Bhattacharjee , Christabel Wayllace

Knowledge Tracing (KT) is to trace the knowledge of students as they solve a sequence of problems represented by their related skills. This involves abstract concepts of students' states of knowledge and the interactions between those…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2019-08-09 Jinseok Lee , Dit-Yan Yeung

Model uncertainty is pervasive in real world analysis situations and is an often-neglected issue in applied statistics. However, standard approaches to the research process do not address the inherent uncertainty in model building and,…

Methodology · Statistics 2024-03-01 Mariana Nold , Florian Meinfelder , David Kaplan

Knowledge Tracing (KT) is a critical component in online learning, but traditional approaches face limitations in interpretability and cross-domain adaptability. This paper introduces Language Model-based Code Knowledge Tracing (CodeLKT),…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-09-04 Unggi Lee , Jiyeong Bae , Yeonji Jung , Minji Kang , Gyuri Byun , Yeonseo Lee , Dohee Kim , Sookbun Lee , Jaekwon Park , Taekyung Ahn , Gunho Lee , Hyeoncheol Kim

Knowledge tracing (KT) aims to assess individuals' evolving knowledge states according to their learning interactions with different exercises in online learning systems (OIS), which is critical in supporting decision-making for subsequent…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-04-07 Shuanghong Shen , Enhong Chen , Bihan Xu , Qi Liu , Zhenya Huang , Linbo Zhu , Yu Su

Dataset distillation extracts a small set of synthetic training samples from a large dataset with the goal of achieving competitive performance on test data when trained on this sample. In this work, we tackle dataset distillation at its…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-14 Yunzhen Feng , Ramakrishna Vedantam , Julia Kempe

The goal of Knowledge Tracing (KT) is to estimate how well students have mastered a concept based on their historical learning of related exercises. The benefit of knowledge tracing is that students' learning plans can be better organised…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-01-25 Xiangyu Song , Jianxin Li , Qi Lei , Wei Zhao , Yunliang Chen , Ajmal Mian

Accurately assessing student knowledge is central to education. Cognitive Diagnosis (CD) models estimate student proficiency at a fixed point in time, while Knowledge Tracing (KT) methods model evolving knowledge states to predict future…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Antonin Berthon , Mihaela van der Schaar

The rapid evolution of deep learning and large language models has led to an exponential growth in the demand for training data, prompting the development of Dataset Distillation methods to address the challenges of managing large datasets.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-07-01 Wenliang Zhong , Haoyu Tang , Qinghai Zheng , Mingzhu Xu , Yupeng Hu , Liqiang Nie

Summary Brain Predictability toolbox (BPt) represents a unified framework of machine learning (ML) tools designed to work with both tabulated data (in particular brain, psychiatric, behavioral, and physiological variables) and neuroimaging…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-11-04 Sage Hahn , Dekang Yuan , Wesley Thompson , Max M Owens , Nicholas Allgaier , Hugh Garavan

Accurate modeling of student knowledge is essential for large-scale online learning systems that are increasingly used for student training. Knowledge tracing aims to model student knowledge state given the student's sequence of learning…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2023-01-31 Siqian Zhao , Chunpai Wang , Shaghayegh Sahebi

We consider the problem of estimating the expected value of information (the knowledge gradient) for Bayesian learning problems where the belief model is nonlinear in the parameters. Our goal is to maximize some metric, while simultaneously…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2016-11-23 Xinyu He , Warren B. Powell

Knowledge tracing (KT) defines the task of predicting whether students can correctly answer questions based on their historical response. Although much research has been devoted to exploiting the question information, plentiful advanced…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2020-12-10 Yunfei Liu , Yang Yang , Xianyu Chen , Jian Shen , Haifeng Zhang , Yong Yu

Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS), such as Massive Open Online Courses, offer new opportunities for human learning. At the core of such systems, knowledge tracing (KT) predicts students' future performance by analyzing their historical…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2025-09-23 Hengyu Liu , Yushuai Li , Minghe Yu , Tiancheng Zhang , Ge Yu , Torben Bach Pedersen , Kristian Torp , Christian S. Jensen , Tianyi Li

Gradient descent computed by backpropagation (BP) is a widely used learning method for training artificial neural networks but has several limitations: it is computationally demanding, requires frequent manual tuning of the network…

Signal Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-10-02 Jiaqi Xing , Libo Chen , ZeZheng Zhang , Mohammed Nazibul Hasan , Zhi-Bin Zhang

Knowledge distillation establishes a learning paradigm that leverages both data supervision and teacher guidance. However, determining the optimal balance between learning from data and learning from the teacher is challenging, as some…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Jingchen Sun , Shaobo Han , Deep Patel , Wataru Kohno , Can Jin , Changyou Chen

Knowledge Tracing (KT) models face a critical ``Performance-Complexity Trap'': capturing complex cognitive dynamics like learning sessions and memory decay typically requires deep hierarchical architectures, which incur prohibitive…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-12-09 Xiao-li Xia , Hou-biao Li

Knowledge tracing (KT) aims to leverage students' learning histories to estimate their mastery levels on a set of pre-defined skills, based on which the corresponding future performance can be accurately predicted. As an important way of…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-06-07 Fucai Ke , Weiqing Wang , Weicong Tan , Lan Du , Yuan Jin , Yujin Huang , Hongzhi Yin

Estimating the entropy rate of discrete time series is a challenging problem with important applications in numerous areas including neuroscience, genomics, image processing and natural language processing. A number of approaches have been…

Methodology · Statistics 2023-03-22 Ioannis Papageorgiou , Ioannis Kontoyiannis

Few models have been more ubiquitous in their respective fields than Bayesian knowledge tracing and item response theory. Both of these models were developed to analyze data on learners. However, the study designs that these models are…

Methodology · Statistics 2018-10-15 Benjamin Deonovic , Michael Yudelson , Maria Bolsinova , Meirav Attali , Gunter Maris