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Test-time compute (TTC) has become an increasingly prominent paradigm for enhancing large language models (LLMs). Despite the empirical success of methods such as best-of-$n$ (BoN) sampling and sequential revision, their fundamental limits…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-05 Yue Yu , Qiwei Di , Quanquan Gu , Dongruo Zhou

In the pursuit of superior video-processing MLLMs, we have encountered a perplexing paradox: the "anti-scaling law", where more data and larger models lead to worse performance. This study unmasks the culprit: "temporal hacking", a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-02-18 En Yu , Kangheng Lin , Liang Zhao , Yana Wei , Zining Zhu , Haoran Wei , Jianjian Sun , Zheng Ge , Xiangyu Zhang , Jingyu Wang , Wenbing Tao

Large language models (LLMs) demonstrate impressive performance but lack the flexibility to adapt to human preferences quickly without retraining. In this work, we introduce Test-time Preference Optimization (TPO), a framework that aligns…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-01-23 Yafu Li , Xuyang Hu , Xiaoye Qu , Linjie Li , Yu Cheng

Test-time scaling (TTS) for large language models (LLMs) has thus far fallen into two largely separate paradigms: (1) reinforcement learning (RL) methods that optimize sparse outcome-based rewards, yet suffer from instability and low sample…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Can Jin , Yang Zhou , Qixin Zhang , Hongwu Peng , Di Zhang , Zihan Dong , Marco Pavone , Ligong Han , Zhang-Wei Hong , Tong Che , Dimitris N. Metaxas

Test-time scaling (TTS) -- the dynamic allocation of compute during inference -- is a promising direction for improving reasoning in large language models (LLMs). However, a systematic comparison of well-known TTS strategies under identical…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-02 Aradhye Agarwal , Ayan Sengupta , Tanmoy Chakraborty

Test-time training (TTT) adapts model parameters on unlabeled test instances during inference time, which continuously extends capabilities beyond the reach of offline training. Despite initial gains, existing TTT methods for LRMs plateau…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Qingyang Zhang , Xinke Kong , Haitao Wu , Qinghua Hu , Minghao Wu , Baosong Yang , Yu Cheng , Yun Luo , Ganqu Cui , Changqing Zhang

Personalized federated learning algorithms have shown promising results in adapting models to various distribution shifts. However, most of these methods require labeled data on testing clients for personalization, which is usually…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-31 Wenxuan Bao , Tianxin Wei , Haohan Wang , Jingrui He

Recent developments in large language models have shown advantages in reallocating a notable share of computational resource from training time to inference time. However, the principles behind inference time scaling are not well…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-13 Indranil Halder , Cengiz Pehlevan

Enabling LLMs to improve their outputs by using more test-time computation is a critical step towards building generally self-improving agents that can operate on open-ended natural language. In this paper, we study the scaling of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-07 Charlie Snell , Jaehoon Lee , Kelvin Xu , Aviral Kumar

Test-time scaling (TTS) has recently emerged as a promising direction to exploit the hidden reasoning capabilities of pre-trained large language models (LLMs). However, existing scaling methods narrowly focus on the compute-optimal…

Performance · Computer Science 2025-09-25 Youpeng Zhao , Jinpeng LV , Di Wu , Jun Wang , Christopher Gooley

Personalizing large language models (LLMs) to individual user preferences is a critical step beyond generating generically helpful responses. However, current personalization methods are ill-suited for new users, as they typically require…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Zikun Qu , Min Zhang , Mingze Kong , Xiang Li , Zhiwei Shang , Zhiyong Wang , Yikun Ban , Shuang Qiu , Yao Shu , Zhongxiang Dai

Large reasoning models (LRMs) have exhibited the capacity of enhancing reasoning performance via internal test-time scaling. Building upon this, a promising direction is to further scale test-time compute to unlock even greater reasoning…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-06-10 Jian Wang , Boyan Zhu , Chak Tou Leong , Yongqi Li , Wenjie Li

Personalized alignment of large language models seeks to adapt responses to individual user preferences, typically via reinforcement learning. A key challenge is obtaining accurate, user-specific reward signals in open-ended scenarios.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-13 Pinyi Zhang , Ting-En Lin , Yuchuan Wu , Jingyang Chen , Zongqi Wang , Hua Yang , Ze Xu , Fei Huang , Kai Zhang , Yongbin Li

Large Language Model (LLM) agents can increasingly automate complex reasoning through Test-Time Scaling (TTS), iterative refinement guided by reward signals. However, many real-world tasks involve multi-stage pipeline whose final outcomes…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-30 Shuyu Gan , James Mooney , Pan Hao , Renxiang Wang , Mingyi Hong , Qianwen Wang , Dongyeop Kang

Test-time compute scaling allocates inference computation uniformly, uses fixed sampling strategies, and applies verification only for reranking. In contrast, we propose a verifier-guided adaptive framework treating reasoning as iterative…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-08 Ahsan Bilal , Ahmed Mohsin , Muhammad Umer , Ali Subhan , Hassan Rizwan , Ayesha Mohsin , Dean Hougen

Test-time scaling has emerged as a critical avenue for enhancing the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs). Though the straight-forward ''best-of-$N$'' (BoN) strategy has already demonstrated significant improvements in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Muheng Li , Jian Qian , Wenlong Mou

Alignment of Large Language Models (LLMs) aims to align outputs with human preferences, and personalized alignment further adapts models to individual users. This relies on personalized reward models that capture user-specific preferences…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Hongru Cai , Yongqi Li , Tiezheng Yu , Fengbin Zhu , Wenjie Wang , Fuli Feng , Wenjie Li

Large language models (LLMs) and multimodal LLMs (MLL-Ms) excel at chain-of-thought reasoning but face distribution shift at test-time and a lack of verifiable supervision. Recent test-time reinforcement learning (TTRL) methods derive…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-09 Jianghao Wu , Yasmeen George , Jin Ye , Yicheng Wu , Daniel F. Schmidt , Jianfei Cai

Personalized alignment from preference data has focused primarily on improving personal reward model (RM) accuracy, with the implicit assumption that better preference ranking translates to better personalized behavior. However, in…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-01-09 Fady Rezk , Yuangang Pan , Chuan-Sheng Foo , Xun Xu , Nancy Chen , Henry Gouk , Timothy Hospedales

Inspired by the success of language models (LM), scaling up deep learning recommendation systems (DLRS) has become a recent trend in the community. All previous methods tend to scale up the model parameters during training time. However,…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-12-09 Fuyuan Lyu , Zhentai Chen , Jingyan Jiang , Lingjie Li , Xing Tang , Xiuqiang He , Xue Liu
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