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What is a useful skill hierarchy for an autonomous agent? We propose an answer based on a graphical representation of how the interaction between an agent and its environment may unfold. Our approach uses modularity maximisation as a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-01-18 Joshua B. Evans , Özgür Şimşek

Agent-based models (ABMs) are simulation models used in economics to overcome some of the limitations of traditional frameworks based on general equilibrium assumptions. However, agents within an ABM follow predetermined 'bounded rational'…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-23 Simone Brusatin , Tommaso Padoan , Andrea Coletta , Domenico Delli Gatti , Aldo Glielmo

Skill-based reinforcement learning (RL) approaches have shown considerable promise, especially in solving long-horizon tasks via hierarchical structures. These skills, learned task-agnostically from offline datasets, can accelerate the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-23 Woo Kyung Kim , Minjong Yoo , Honguk Woo

As Large Language Models (LLMs) move from curated training sets into open-ended real-world environments, a fundamental limitation emerges: static training cannot keep pace with continual deployment environment change. Scaling training-time…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-03-17 Minhua Lin , Hanqing Lu , Zhan Shi , Bing He , Rui Mao , Zhiwei Zhang , Zongyu Wu , Xianfeng Tang , Hui Liu , Zhenwei Dai , Xiang Zhang , Suhang Wang , Benoit Dumoulin , Jian Pei

Agent skills, which are reusable, domain-specific knowledge artifacts, have become a popular mechanism for extending LLM-based agents, yet formally benchmarking skill usage performance remains scarce. Existing skill benchmarking efforts…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-07 Yujian Liu , Jiabao Ji , Li An , Tommi Jaakkola , Yang Zhang , Shiyu Chang

Modern LLMs show mastery over an ever-growing range of skills, as well as the ability to compose them flexibly. However, extending model capabilities to new skills in a scalable manner is an open problem: fine-tuning and parameter-efficient…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Antonin Berthon , Nicolas Astorga , Mihaela van der Schaar

Reinforcement learning (RL) has substantially improved the ability of large language model (LLM) agents to interact with environments and solve multi-turn tasks. However, effective agentic RL remains challenging: sparse outcome-only rewards…

Large language model (LLM) agents face fundamental limitations in long-horizon reasoning due to finite context windows, making effective memory management critical. Existing methods typically handle long-term memory (LTM) and short-term…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-01 Yi Yu , Liuyi Yao , Yuexiang Xie , Qingquan Tan , Jiaqi Feng , Yaliang Li , Libing Wu

Reinforcement Learning (RL) has shown great potential for autonomous decision-making in the cybersecurity domain, enabling agents to learn through direct environment interaction. However, RL agents in Autonomous Cyber Operations (ACO)…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Konur Tholl , François Rivest , Mariam El Mezouar , Adrian Taylor , Ranwa Al Mallah

To quickly solve new tasks in complex environments, intelligent agents need to build up reusable knowledge. For example, a learned world model captures knowledge about the environment that applies to new tasks. Similarly, skills capture…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-04 Kevin Xie , Homanga Bharadhwaj , Danijar Hafner , Animesh Garg , Florian Shkurti

Class-Incremental Learning (CIL) [40] trains classifiers under a strict memory budget: in each incremental phase, learning is done for new data, most of which is abandoned to free space for the next phase. The preserved data are exemplars…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-01-18 Yaoyao Liu , Bernt Schiele , Qianru Sun

Multi-agent Large Language Model (LLM) systems have emerged as powerful architectures for complex task decomposition and collaborative problem-solving. However, their long-term behavioral stability remains largely unexamined. This study…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-01-08 Abhishek Rath

We use model-free reinforcement learning, extensive simulation, and transfer learning to develop a continuous control algorithm that has good zero-shot performance in a real physical environment. We train a simulated agent to act optimally…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2018-03-09 M Ferguson , K. H. Law

Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in complex reasoning tasks, yet they remain fundamentally limited by their reliance on static internal knowledge and text-only reasoning. Real-world problem solving often…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-05-06 Joykirat Singh , Raghav Magazine , Yash Pandya , Akshay Nambi

The past years have seen Large Language Models (LLMs) strive not only as generative models but also as agents solving textual sequential decision-making tasks. When facing complex environments where their zero-shot abilities are…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-30 Loris Gaven , Clement Romac , Thomas Carta , Sylvain Lamprier , Olivier Sigaud , Pierre-Yves Oudeyer

Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as a new paradigm for embodied reasoning and control, most recently by generating robot policy code that utilizes a custom library of vision and control primitive skills. However, prior arts fix…

Robotics · Computer Science 2024-07-16 Georgios Tziafas , Hamidreza Kasaei

Large language model (LLM) agents are increasingly used for complex tasks, yet deployed agents often remain static, failing to adapt as user needs evolve. This creates a tension between the need for continuous service and the necessity of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-19 Peng Xia , Jianwen Chen , Xinyu Yang , Haoqin Tu , Jiaqi Liu , Kaiwen Xiong , Siwei Han , Shi Qiu , Haonian Ji , Yuyin Zhou , Zeyu Zheng , Cihang Xie , Huaxiu Yao

In recent years, a variety of powerful LLM-based agentic systems have been applied to automate complex tasks through task orchestration. However, existing orchestration methods still face key challenges, including strategy collapse under…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-15 Mingda Zhang , Tiesunlong Shen , Haoran Luo , Wenjin Liu , Zikai Xiao , Erik Cambria , Xiaoying Tang

We present Dynamic Skill Adaptation (DSA), an adaptive and dynamic framework to adapt novel and complex skills to Large Language Models (LLMs). Compared with previous work which learns from human-curated and static data in random orders, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-12-30 Jiaao Chen , Diyi Yang

Reinforcement learning (RL) has demonstrated potential in enhancing the reasoning capabilities of large language models (LLMs), but such training typically demands substantial efforts in creating and annotating data. In this work, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-06 Hangfan Zhang , Siyuan Xu , Zhimeng Guo , Huaisheng Zhu , Shicheng Liu , Xinrun Wang , Qiaosheng Zhang , Yang Chen , Peng Ye , Lei Bai , Shuyue Hu