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We explore the approximation capabilities of Transformer networks for H\"older and Sobolev functions, and apply these results to address nonparametric regression estimation with dependent observations. First, we establish novel upper bounds…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-04-17 Yuling Jiao , Yanming Lai , Defeng Sun , Yang Wang , Bokai Yan

The Transformer model is widely used in various application areas of machine learning, such as natural language processing. This paper investigates the approximation of the H\"older continuous function class…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-21 Yuling Jiao , Yanming Lai , Yang Wang , Bokai Yan

The tremendous success of Transformer models in fields such as large language models and computer vision necessitates a rigorous theoretical investigation. To the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first work proving that standard…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-02-25 Yanming Lai , Defeng Sun

Transformer networks have achieved remarkable empirical success across a wide range of applications, yet their theoretical expressive power remains insufficiently understood. In this paper, we study the expressive capabilities of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-04 Linyan Gu , Lihua Yang , Feng Zhou

This paper investigates the learning theory of Transformer networks for regression tasks on the compact Euclidean domain $[0,1]^d$ and $d$-dimensional compact Riemannian manifolds. We propose a novel constructive approximation framework for…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-05-12 Zhongjie Shi , Wenjing Liao

Transformer has become the dominant architecture for sequence modeling, yet a detailed understanding of how its structural parameters influence expressive power remains limited. In this work, we study the approximation properties of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-01 Penghao Yu , Haotian Jiang , Zeyu Bao , Ruoxi Yu , Qianxiao Li

This paper studies the approximation capacity of neural networks with an arbitrary activation function and with norm constraint on the weights. Upper and lower bounds on the approximation error of these networks are computed for smooth…

Numerical Analysis · Mathematics 2025-12-24 Francesco Paolo Maiale , Anastasiia Trofimova , Arturo De Marinis

In this work, we consider the approximation of a large class of bounded functions, with minimal regularity assumptions, by ReLU neural networks. We show that the approximation error can be bounded from above by a quantity proportional to…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-02-27 Owen Davis , Gianluca Geraci , Mohammad Motamed

This paper investigates approximation-theoretic aspects of the in-context learning capability of the transformers in representing a family of noisy linear dynamical systems. Our first theoretical result establishes an upper bound on the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-22 Frank Cole , Yuxuan Zhao , Yulong Lu , Tianhao Zhang

Transformers serve as the foundational architecture for large language and video generation models, such as GPT, BERT, SORA and their successors. Empirical studies have demonstrated that real-world data and learning tasks exhibit…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Zhaiming Shen , Alex Havrilla , Rongjie Lai , Alexander Cloninger , Wenjing Liao

This paper studies generalization error bounds for Transformer models. Based on the offset Rademacher complexity, we derive sharper generalization bounds for different Transformer architectures, including single-layer single-head,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Yawen Li , Tao Hu , Zhouhui Lian , Wan Tian , Yijie Peng , Huiming Zhang , Zhongyi Li

We study the approximation capacity of deep ReLU recurrent neural networks (RNNs) and explore the convergence properties of nonparametric least squares regression using RNNs. We derive upper bounds on the approximation error of RNNs for…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-10-07 Yuling Jiao , Yang Wang , Bokai Yan

Error correction code is a major part of the communication physical layer, ensuring the reliable transfer of data over noisy channels. Recently, neural decoders were shown to outperform classical decoding techniques. However, the existing…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-30 Yoni Choukroun , Lior Wolf

Transformers have become pivotal in Natural Language Processing, demonstrating remarkable success in applications like Machine Translation and Summarization. Given their widespread adoption, several works have attempted to analyze the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-02 Swaroop Nath , Harshad Khadilkar , Pushpak Bhattacharyya

Recently, deep Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have proven to be successful when employed in areas such as reduced order modeling of parametrized PDEs. Despite their accuracy and efficiency, the approaches available in the literature…

Numerical Analysis · Mathematics 2023-01-26 Nicola Rares Franco , Stefania Fresca , Andrea Manzoni , Paolo Zunino

LLMs demonstrate significant inference capacities in complicated machine learning tasks, using the Transformer model as its backbone. Motivated by the limited understanding of such models on the unsupervised learning problems, we study the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-02-11 Yihan He , Hong-Yu Chen , Yuan Cao , Jianqing Fan , Han Liu

While the approximation properties of single-layer Transformer architectures have been studied in recent works, a rigorous theoretical understanding of the multi-layer setting remains limited. In this work, we establish that multi-layer…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Penghao Yu , Haotian Jiang , Zeyu Bao , Qianxiao Li

In this paper, we introduce various covering number bounds for linear function classes, each subject to different constraints on input and matrix norms. These bounds are contingent on the rank of each class of matrices. We then apply these…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-10-16 Lan V. Truong

This paper concentrates on the approximation power of deep feed-forward neural networks in terms of width and depth. It is proved by construction that ReLU networks with width $\mathcal{O}\big(\max\{d\lfloor N^{1/d}\rfloor,\, N+2\}\big)$…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-15 Zuowei Shen , Haizhao Yang , Shijun Zhang

An inherent challenge in computing fully-explicit generalization bounds for transformers involves obtaining covering number estimates for the given transformer class $T$. Crude estimates rely on a uniform upper bound on the local-Lipschitz…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-07 Yannick Limmer , Anastasis Kratsios , Xuwei Yang , Raeid Saqur , Blanka Horvath
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