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We present a nonparametric interpretation for deep learning compatible modern Hopfield models and utilize this new perspective to debut efficient variants. Our key contribution stems from interpreting the memory storage and retrieval…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-06-10 Jerry Yao-Chieh Hu , Bo-Yu Chen , Dennis Wu , Feng Ruan , Han Liu

Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) provide a theoretical framework for understanding computation in biological neural circuits, yet classical results, such as Hopfield's model of associative memory, rely on symmetric connectivity that…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2026-02-17 Ramón Nartallo-Kaluarachchi , Renaud Lambiotte , Alain Goriely

Many models used in artificial intelligence and cognitive science rely on multi-element patterns stored in "slots" - dedicated storage locations - in a digital computer. As biological brains likely lack slots, we consider how they might…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-11-07 Shaunak Bhandarkar , James L. McClelland

To explore the relation between network structure and function, we studied the computational performance of Hopfield-type attractor neural nets with regular lattice, random, small-world and scale-free topologies. The random net is the most…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2009-11-10 Patrick N. Mcgraw , Michael Menzinger

Sequence memory is an essential attribute of natural and artificial intelligence that enables agents to encode, store, and retrieve complex sequences of stimuli and actions. Computational models of sequence memory have been proposed where…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2023-11-06 Hamza Tahir Chaudhry , Jacob A. Zavatone-Veth , Dmitry Krotov , Cengiz Pehlevan

Associative memory models, such as Hopfield networks and their modern variants, have garnered renewed interest due to advancements in memory capacity and connections with self-attention in transformers. In this work, we introduce a unified…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-28 Saul Santos , Vlad Niculae , Daniel McNamee , André F. T. Martins

We consider a generalization of the Hopfield model, where the entries of patterns are Gaussian and diluted. We focus on the high-storage regime and we investigate analytically the topological properties of the emergent network, as well as…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2012-09-28 Elena Agliari , Lorenzo Asti , Adriano Barra , Raffaella Burioni , Guido Uguzzoni

The brain can reproduce memories from partial data; this ability is critical for memory recall. The process of memory recall has been studied using auto-associative networks such as the Hopfield model. This kind of model reliably converges…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2016-05-18 James P. Roach , Leonard M Sander , Michal R. Zochowski

Neural network models capable of storing memory have been extensively studied in computer science and computational neuroscience. The Hopfield network is a prototypical example of a model designed for associative, or content-addressable,…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2025-09-24 Marco Cafiso , Paolo Paradisi

Recent generalizations of the Hopfield model of associative memories are able to store a number $P$ of random patterns that grows exponentially with the number $N$ of neurons, $P=\exp(\alpha N)$. Besides the huge storage capacity, another…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2024-02-14 Carlo Lucibello , Marc Mézard

The ability to learn in dynamic, nonstationary environments without forgetting previous knowledge, also known as Continual Learning (CL), is a key enabler for scalable and trustworthy deployments of adaptive solutions. While the importance…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-25 Andrea Cossu , Antonio Carta , Davide Bacciu

Quantum computing allows for the potential of significant advancements in both the speed and the capacity of widely used machine learning techniques. Here we employ quantum algorithms for the Hopfield network, which can be used for pattern…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-10-10 Patrick Rebentrost , Thomas R. Bromley , Christian Weedbrook , Seth Lloyd

Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning (HRL) promises to solve long-horizon Reinforcement Learning (RL) tasks more efficiently than non-hierarchical counterparts by discovering and reusing temporally-extended skills. However, obtaining skills…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-27 Sarthak Dayal , Abhinav Peri , Carl Qi , Claas Voelcker , Alexander Levine , Caleb Chuck , Amy Zhang

In neuroscience, classical Hopfield networks are the standard biologically plausible model of long-term memory, relying on Hebbian plasticity for storage and attractor dynamics for recall. In contrast, memory-augmented neural networks in…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2021-10-28 Danil Tyulmankov , Ching Fang , Annapurna Vadaparty , Guangyu Robert Yang

Neuromorphic Continual Learning (NCL) paradigm leverages Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) to enable continual learning (CL) capabilities for AI systems to adapt to dynamically changing environments. Currently, the state-of-the-art employ a…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-10-30 Mishal Fatima Minhas , Rachmad Vidya Wicaksana Putra , Falah Awwad , Osman Hasan , Muhammad Shafique

Learning or memory formation are associated with the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons according to a pattern reflected by the input. According to this theory a retained memory sequence is associated to a dynamic…

Dynamical Systems · Mathematics 2016-03-23 Pascal Chossat , Martin Krupa

The Hopfield network (HN) is a classical model of associative memory whose dynamics are closely related to the Ising spin system with 2-body interactions. Stored patterns are encoded as minima of an energy function shaped by a Hebbian…

Applied Physics · Physics 2025-09-23 Marco Cafiso , Paolo Paradisi

Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) and self-attention are both widely used sequence-mixing layers that maintain an internal memory. However, this memory is constructed using two orthogonal mechanisms: RNNs compress the entire past into a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-30 Leon Lufkin , Tomás Figliolia , Beren Millidge , Kamesh Krishnamurthy

We introduce a modern Hopfield network with continuous states and a corresponding update rule. The new Hopfield network can store exponentially (with the dimension of the associative space) many patterns, retrieves the pattern with one…

Associative memory models such as the Hopfield network and its dense generalizations with higher-order interactions exhibit a "blackout catastrophe" -- a discontinuous transition where stable memory states abruptly vanish when the number of…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2026-03-24 David G. Clark