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This paper reviews the role of expert judgement to support reliability assessments within the systems engineering design process. Generic design processes are described to give the context and a discussion is given about the nature of the…

Methodology · Statistics 2007-08-03 Tim Bedford , John Quigley , Lesley Walls

When people share the same documents and observations yet reach different conclusions, the disagreement often shifts into a judgment that the other party is cognitively defective, irrational, or acting in bad faith. This paper argues that…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-13 Toru Takahashi

Large language models show compelling performance on reasoning tasks but they tend to perform much worse in languages other than English. This is unsurprising given that their training data largely consists of English text and instructions.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-02 Wenhao Zhu , Shujian Huang , Fei Yuan , Shuaijie She , Jiajun Chen , Alexandra Birch

This paper is under review in AI and Ethics This study examines whether large language models (LLMs) can reliably answer scientific questions and demonstrates how easily they can be influenced by fringe scientific material. The authors…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2026-04-29 Harry Collins , Hartmut Grote , Paul Newbury , Patrick Sutton , Simon Thorne

Research on the 'cultural alignment' of Large Language Models (LLMs) has emerged in response to growing interest in understanding representation across diverse stakeholders. Current approaches to evaluating cultural alignment through…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2025-04-10 Ariba Khan , Stephen Casper , Dylan Hadfield-Menell

The alignment of large language models (LLMs) often assumes that using more clean data yields better outcomes, overlooking the match between model capacity and example difficulty. Challenging this, we propose a new principle: Preference…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-15 Chengqian Gao , Haonan Li , Liu Liu , Zeke Xie , Peilin Zhao , Zhiqiang Xu

One of the major challenges for collective intelligence is inconsistency, which is unavoidable whenever subjective assessments are involved. Pairwise comparisons allow one to represent such subjective assessments and to process them by…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2015-08-06 J. Fueloep , W. W. Koczkodaj , S. J. Szarek

We investigate whether experts possess differential expertise when making predictions. We note that this would make it possible to aggregate multiple predictions into a result that is more accurate than their consensus average, and that the…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2018-06-19 Amir Ban , Yishay Mansour

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated impressive capabilities, but still suffer from inconsistency issues (e.g. LLMs can react differently to disturbances like rephrasing or inconsequential order change). In addition to these…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-19 Zhe Yang , Yichang Zhang , Tianyu Liu , Jian Yang , Junyang Lin , Chang Zhou , Zhifang Sui

Large language models (LLMs) may exhibit unintended or undesirable behaviors. Recent works have concentrated on aligning LLMs to mitigate harmful outputs. Despite these efforts, some anomalies indicate that even a well-conducted alignment…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-24 Jiaming Ji , Kaile Wang , Tianyi Qiu , Boyuan Chen , Jiayi Zhou , Changye Li , Hantao Lou , Juntao Dai , Yunhuai Liu , Yaodong Yang

How can one meaningfully make a measurement, if the meter does not conform to any standard and its scale expands or shrinks depending on what is measured? In the present work it is argued that current evaluation practices for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-24 K. Dyrland , A. S. Lundervold , P. G. L. Porta Mana

Human relevance assessment is time-consuming and cognitively intensive, limiting the scalability of Information Retrieval evaluation. This has led to growing interest in using large language models (LLMs) as proxies for human judges.…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Chuting Yu , Hang Li , Guido Zuccon , Joel Mackenzie , Teerapong Leelanupab

Personalized alignment aims to adapt large language models to heterogeneous user preferences, yet the precise theoretical conditions for its statistical efficiency have not been formally established. This paper characterizes the conditions…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Enoch Hyunwook Kang

Political scientists increasingly analyze multimodal data. However, the effective analysis of such data requires aligning information across different modalities. In our paper, we demonstrate the significance of such alignment. Informed by…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-24 Christian Arnold , Andreas Küpfer

Question answering (QA) can only make progress if we know if an answer is correct, but for many of the most challenging and interesting QA examples, current evaluation metrics to determine answer equivalence (AE) often do not align with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-02 Zongxia Li , Ishani Mondal , Yijun Liang , Huy Nghiem , Jordan Boyd-Graber

The potential of using Large Language Models (LLMs) themselves to evaluate LLM outputs offers a promising method for assessing model performance across various contexts. Previous research indicates that LLM-as-a-judge exhibits a strong…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2024-10-29 Annalisa Szymanski , Noah Ziems , Heather A. Eicher-Miller , Toby Jia-Jun Li , Meng Jiang , Ronald A. Metoyer

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated promising capabilities as automatic evaluators in assessing the quality of generated natural language. However, LLMs still exhibit biases in evaluation and often struggle to generate coherent…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-01-20 Yinhong Liu , Han Zhou , Zhijiang Guo , Ehsan Shareghi , Ivan Vulić , Anna Korhonen , Nigel Collier

Evaluating LLM-generated business ideas is often harder to scale than generating them. Unlike standard NLP benchmarks, business idea evaluation relies on multi-dimensional criteria such as feasibility, novelty, differentiation, user need,…

Experts' beliefs embody a present state of knowledge. It is desirable to take this knowledge into account when doing analyses or making decisions. Yet ranking experts based on the merit of their beliefs is a difficult task. In this paper we…

Methodology · Statistics 2018-08-10 Duco Veen , Diederick Stoel , Naomi Schalken , Rens van de Schoot

The increasing prevalence of artificial agents creates a correspondingly increasing need to manage disagreements between humans and artificial agents, as well as between artificial agents themselves. Considering this larger space of…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2023-10-23 Kerem Oktar , Ilia Sucholutsky , Tania Lombrozo , Thomas L. Griffiths