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In 1982 John Hopfield published a neural network model for memory retrieval, a model that became a cornerstone in theoretical neuroscience. A key ingredient of the Hopfield model was the use of a network dynamics that is governed by a…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2020-05-12 Merav Stern , Eric Shea-Brown

Hopfield neural networks are a possible basis for modelling associative memory in living organisms. After summarising previous studies in the field, we take a new look at learning rules, exhibiting them as descent-type algorithms for…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2020-10-06 Pavel Tolmachev , Jonathan H. Manton

Associative memory models are content-addressable memory systems fundamental to biological intelligence and are notable for their high interpretability. However, existing models evaluate the quality of retrieval based on proximity, which…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-26 Shurong Wang , Yuqi Pan , Zhuoyang Shen , Meng Zhang , Hongwei Wang , Guoqi Li

Associative memory models retrieve stored information through content-based addressing, mimicking the neural processes of animal brains. The classical Hopfield network-based models store memories as vectors of discrete values and have good…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2026-01-21 Nurani Rajagopal Rohan , V. Srinivasa Chakravarthy , Sayan Gupta

We study a fully connected Hopfield-type associative memory network with online activity-dependent synaptic plasticity, where neural states and synaptic couplings coevolve during retrieval. Using the generating-functional formalism, we…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2026-05-22 Yoshinori Hara , Yoshiyuki Kabashima

In "Large Associative Memory Problem in Neurobiology and Machine Learning," Dmitry Krotov and John Hopfield introduced a general technique for the systematic construction of neural ordinary differential equations with non-increasing energy…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2025-02-27 Vladimir Fanaskov , Ivan Oseledets

Retrieval of episodic memory is a dynamical process in the large scale brain networks. In social groups, the neural patterns, associated to specific events directly experienced by single members, are encoded, recalled and shared by all…

Chaotic Dynamics · Physics 2018-05-15 Valentin S. Afraimovich , Michael A. Zaks , Mikhail I. Rabinovich

We present a Hopfield-like autoassociative network for memories representing examples of concepts. Each memory is encoded by two activity patterns with complementary properties. The first is dense and correlated across examples within…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2023-08-28 Louis Kang , Taro Toyoizumi

Associative Memories like the famous Hopfield Networks are elegant models for describing fully recurrent neural networks whose fundamental job is to store and retrieve information. In the past few years they experienced a surge of interest…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-06 Dmitry Krotov , Benjamin Hoover , Parikshit Ram , Bao Pham

The primate heteromodal cortex presents an evident functional modularity at a mesoscopic level, with physiological and anatomical evidence pointing to it as likely substrate of long-term memory. In order to investigate some of its…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2021-12-09 Carlo Fulvi Mari

Recent generalizations of the Hopfield model of associative memories are able to store a number $P$ of random patterns that grows exponentially with the number $N$ of neurons, $P=\exp(\alpha N)$. Besides the huge storage capacity, another…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2024-02-14 Carlo Lucibello , Marc Mézard

Associative memory models, such as Hopfield networks and their modern variants, have garnered renewed interest due to advancements in memory capacity and connections with self-attention in transformers. In this work, we introduce a unified…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-28 Saul Santos , Vlad Niculae , Daniel McNamee , André F. T. Martins

The investigation of the neuronal environment allows us to better understand the activity of a cerebral region as a whole. The recent experimental evidences of the presence of transporters for glutamate and GABA in both neuronal and…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2015-10-07 Aurélie Garnier , Alexandre Vidal , Habib Benali

We introduce Graph Hopfield Networks, whose energy function couples associative memory retrieval with graph Laplacian smoothing for node classification. Gradient descent on this joint energy yields an iterative update interleaving Hopfield…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-05 Abinav Rao , Alex Wa , Rishi Athavale

Associative memories in the brain receive and store patterns of activity registered by the sensory neurons, and are able to retrieve them when necessary. Due to their importance in human intelligence, computational models of associative…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-09-17 Tommaso Salvatori , Yuhang Song , Yujian Hong , Simon Frieder , Lei Sha , Zhenghua Xu , Rafal Bogacz , Thomas Lukasiewicz

Hebbian learning theory is rooted in Pavlov's Classical Conditioning. While mathematical models of the former have been proposed and studied in the past decades, especially in spin glass theory, only recently it has been numerically shown…

Disordered Systems and Neural Networks · Physics 2024-10-11 Daniele Lotito , Miriam Aquaro , Chiara Marullo

In [7] Krotov and Hopfield suggest a generalized version of the well-known Hopfield model of associative memory. In their version they consider a polynomial interaction function and claim that this increases the storage capacity of the…

Probability · Mathematics 2017-07-03 Mete Demircigil , Judith Heusel , Matthias Löwe , Sven Upgang , Franck Vermet

The dynamics of higher-order topological signals are increasingly recognized as a key aspect of the activity of complex systems. A paradigmatic example are synaptic dynamics: synaptic efficacy changes over time driven by different…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2025-07-11 Gustavo Menesse , Ana P. Millán , Joaquín J. Torres

Hopfield models, originally developed to study memory retrieval in neural networks, have become versatile tools for modeling diverse biological systems in which function emerges from collective dynamics. In this review, we provide a…

Biological Physics · Physics 2025-06-17 Maria Yampolskaya , Pankaj Mehta

Associative memory architectures such as the Hopfield network have long been important conceptual and theoretical models for neuroscience and artificial intelligence. However, translating these abstract models into spiking neural networks…

Neurons and Cognition · Quantitative Biology 2025-07-02 William F. Podlaski , Christian K. Machens