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Annotator disagreement is widespread in NLP, particularly for subjective and ambiguous tasks such as toxicity detection and stance analysis. While early approaches treated disagreement as noise to be removed, recent work increasingly models…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Yinuo Xu , David Jurgens

In NLP annotation, it is common to have multiple annotators label the text and then obtain the ground truth labels based on the agreement of major annotators. However, annotators are individuals with different backgrounds, and minors'…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-01-13 Ruyuan Wan , Jaehyung Kim , Dongyeop Kang

People naturally vary in their annotations for subjective questions and some of this variation is thought to be due to the person's sociodemographic characteristics. LLMs have also been used to label data, but recent work has shown that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-03 Matthias Orlikowski , Jiaxin Pei , Paul Röttger , Philipp Cimiano , David Jurgens , Dirk Hovy

In the realm of Natural Language Processing (NLP), common approaches for handling human disagreement consist of aggregating annotators' viewpoints to establish a single ground truth. However, prior studies show that disregarding individual…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Benedetta Muscato , Lucia Passaro , Gizem Gezici , Fosca Giannotti

Large language models (LLMs) are known to exhibit demographic biases, yet few studies systematically evaluate these biases across multiple datasets or account for confounding factors. In this work, we examine LLM alignment with human…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2024-11-25 Shayan Alipour , Indira Sen , Mattia Samory , Tanushree Mitra

Longstanding data labeling practices in machine learning involve collecting and aggregating labels from multiple annotators. But what should we do when annotators disagree? Though annotator disagreement has long been seen as a problem to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-10 Eve Fleisig , Su Lin Blodgett , Dan Klein , Zeerak Talat

Subjective NLP tasks usually rely on human annotations provided by multiple annotators, whose judgments may vary due to their diverse backgrounds and life experiences. Traditional methods often aggregate multiple annotations into a single…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-17 Benedetta Muscato , Praveen Bushipaka , Gizem Gezici , Lucia Passaro , Fosca Giannotti

Annotators' sociodemographic backgrounds (i.e., the individual compositions of their gender, age, educational background, etc.) have a strong impact on their decisions when working on subjective NLP tasks, such as toxic language detection.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-02-09 Tilman Beck , Hendrik Schuff , Anne Lauscher , Iryna Gurevych

Instead of using a single ground truth for language processing tasks, several recent studies have examined how to represent and predict the labels of the set of annotators. However, often little or no information about annotators is known,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-24 Joan Plepi , Béla Neuendorf , Lucie Flek , Charles Welch

In this work, we explore the capability of Large Language Models (LLMs) to annotate hate speech and abusiveness while considering predefined annotator personas within the strong-to-weak data perspectivism spectra. We evaluated LLM-generated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-26 Olufunke O. Sarumi , Charles Welch , Daniel Braun , Jörg Schlötterer

Large language models are increasingly used to annotate texts, but their outputs reflect some human perspectives better than others. Existing methods for correcting LLM annotation error assume a single ground truth. However, this assumption…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Navya Mehrotra , Adam Visokay , Kristina Gligorić

Natural Language Inference (NLI) is foundational for evaluating language understanding in AI. However, progress has plateaued, with models failing on ambiguous examples and exhibiting poor generalization. We argue that this stems from…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-21 Claudiu Creanga , Liviu P. Dinu

We present an approach to modeling annotator disagreement in subjective NLP tasks through both architectural and data-centric innovations. Our model, DEM-MoE (Demographic-Aware Mixture of Experts), routes inputs to expert subnetworks based…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-11-06 Yinuo Xu , Veronica Derricks , Allison Earl , David Jurgens

Human-annotated data plays a critical role in the fairness of AI systems, including those that deal with life-altering decisions or moderating human-created web/social media content. Conventionally, annotator disagreements are resolved…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2023-07-21 Tharindu Cyril Weerasooriya , Sarah Luger , Saloni Poddar , Ashiqur R. KhudaBukhsh , Christopher M. Homan

Labelled data is the foundation of most natural language processing tasks. However, labelling data is difficult and there often are diverse valid beliefs about what the correct data labels should be. So far, dataset creators have…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-02 Paul Röttger , Bertie Vidgen , Dirk Hovy , Janet B. Pierrehumbert

Crowdsourcing has been the prevalent paradigm for creating natural language understanding datasets in recent years. A common crowdsourcing practice is to recruit a small number of high-quality workers, and have them massively generate…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-08-29 Mor Geva , Yoav Goldberg , Jonathan Berant

It is increasingly recognized that human annotators do not always agree, and such disagreement is inherent in many annotation tasks. However, not all instances in a given task elicit the same degree of opinion divergence. In this paper, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-05 Leixin Zhang , Çağrı Çöltekin

Social media platforms provide users the freedom of expression and a medium to exchange information and express diverse opinions. Unfortunately, this has also resulted in the growth of abusive content with the purpose of discriminating…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-07-01 Sohail Akhtar , Valerio Basile , Viviana Patti

A common practice in building NLP datasets, especially using crowd-sourced annotations, involves obtaining multiple annotator judgements on the same data instances, which are then flattened to produce a single "ground truth" label or score,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-10-13 Vinodkumar Prabhakaran , Aida Mostafazadeh Davani , Mark Díaz

Incorporating every annotator's perspective is crucial for unbiased data modeling. Annotator fatigue and changing opinions over time can distort dataset annotations. To combat this, we propose to learn a more accurate representation of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-05 Uthman Jinadu , Yi Ding
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