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Embedding-as-a-Service (EaaS) is an effective and convenient deployment solution for addressing various NLP tasks. Nevertheless, recent research has shown that EaaS is vulnerable to model extraction attacks, which could lead to significant…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-11-18 Shufan Yang , Zifeng Cheng , Zhiwei Jiang , Yafeng Yin , Cong Wang , Shiping Ge , Yuchen Fu , Qing Gu

Benefiting from the superior capabilities of large language models in natural language understanding and generation, Embeddings-as-a-Service (EaaS) has emerged as a successful commercial paradigm on the web platform. However, prior studies…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-19 Hao Li , Yubing Ren , Yanan Cao , Yingjie Li , Fang Fang , Xuebin Wang

Embeddings as a Service (EaaS) is emerging as a crucial role in AI applications. Unfortunately, EaaS is vulnerable to model extraction attacks, highlighting the urgent need for copyright protection. Although some preliminary works propose…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-22 Zongqi Wang , Baoyuan Wu , Jingyuan Deng , Yujiu Yang

Embeddings-as-a-Service (EaaS) is a service offered by large language model (LLM) developers to supply embeddings generated by LLMs. Previous research suggests that EaaS is prone to imitation attacks -- attacks that clone the underlying…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-03 Anudeex Shetty , Qiongkai Xu , Jey Han Lau

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated exceptional capabilities in natural language understanding and generation. Based on these LLMs, businesses have started to provide Embeddings-as-a-Service (EaaS), offering feature extraction…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-04 Anudeex Shetty

Feature embedding has become a cornerstone technology for processing high-dimensional and complex data, which results in that Embedding as a Service (EaaS) models have been widely deployed in the cloud. To protect the intellectual property…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-01 Hongjie Zhang , Zhiqi Zhao , Hanzhou Wu , Zhihua Xia , Athanasios V. Vasilakos

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated powerful capabilities in both text understanding and generation. Companies have begun to offer Embedding as a Service (EaaS) based on these LLMs, which can benefit various natural language…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-05 Wenjun Peng , Jingwei Yi , Fangzhao Wu , Shangxi Wu , Bin Zhu , Lingjuan Lyu , Binxing Jiao , Tong Xu , Guangzhong Sun , Xing Xie

Recent advances in vision-language pre-trained models (VLPs) have significantly increased visual understanding and cross-modal analysis capabilities. Companies have emerged to provide multi-modal Embedding as a Service (EaaS) based on VLPs…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2023-11-13 Yuanmin Tang , Jing Yu , Keke Gai , Xiangyan Qu , Yue Hu , Gang Xiong , Qi Wu

Embedding as a Service (EaaS) has become a widely adopted solution, which offers feature extraction capabilities for addressing various downstream tasks in Natural Language Processing (NLP). Prior studies have shown that EaaS can be prone…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-06-11 Anudeex Shetty , Yue Teng , Ke He , Qiongkai Xu

Embedding-as-a-Service (EaaS) has emerged as a successful business pattern but faces significant challenges related to various forms of copyright infringement, particularly, the API misuse and model extraction attacks. Various studies have…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-18 Zekun Fei , Biao Yi , Jianing Geng , Ruiqi He , Lihai Nie , Zheli Liu

As Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) evolves into service-oriented platforms (Rag-as-a-Service) with shared knowledge bases, protecting the copyright of contributed data becomes essential. Existing watermarking methods in RAG focus…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-03 Tianyu Chen , Jian Lou , Wenjie Wang

The proliferation of AI-generated content has facilitated sophisticated face manipulation, severely undermining visual integrity and posing unprecedented challenges to intellectual property. In response, a common proactive defense leverages…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-25 Haonan An , Xiaohui Ye , Guang Hua , Yihang Tao , Hangcheng Cao , Xiangyu Yu , Yuguang Fang

As an efficient watermark attack method, geometric distortions destroy the synchronization between watermark encoder and decoder. And the local geometric distortion is a famous challenge in the watermark field. Although a lot of geometric…

Multimedia · Computer Science 2023-02-07 Zehua Ma , Weiming Zhang , Han Fang , Xiaoyi Dong , Linfeng Geng , Nenghai Yu

Generative models have rapidly evolved to generate realistic outputs. However, their synthetic outputs increasingly challenge the clear distinction between natural and AI-generated content, necessitating robust watermarking techniques.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Kasra Arabi , R. Teal Witter , Chinmay Hegde , Niv Cohen

This paper introduces EmMark,a novel watermarking framework for protecting the intellectual property (IP) of embedded large language models deployed on resource-constrained edge devices. To address the IP theft risks posed by malicious…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-02-29 Ruisi Zhang , Farinaz Koushanfar

Knowledge graphs (KGs) are ubiquitous in numerous real-world applications, and watermarking facilitates protecting intellectual property and preventing potential harm from AI-generated content. Existing watermarking methods mainly focus on…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Hongrui Peng , Haolang Lu , Yuanlong Yu , Weiye Fu , Kun Wang , Guoshun Nan

The rapid progress of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) has enabled the effortless synthesis of high-quality visual content, while simultaneously raising pressing concerns about intellectual property protection, authenticity, and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-17 Jie Cao , Qi Li , Zelin Zhang , Jianbing Ni , Rongxing Lu

Digital watermarking enables protection against copyright infringement of images. Although existing methods embed watermarks imperceptibly and demonstrate robustness against attacks, they typically lack resilience against geometric…

Multimedia · Computer Science 2024-02-15 Hannes Mareen , Lucas Antchougov , Glenn Van Wallendael , Peter Lambert

In the era where AI-generated content (AIGC) models can produce stunning and lifelike images, the lingering shadow of unauthorized reproductions and malicious tampering poses imminent threats to copyright integrity and information security.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-15 Xuanyu Zhang , Runyi Li , Jiwen Yu , Youmin Xu , Weiqi Li , Jian Zhang

Watermarking is one of the most important copyright protection tools for digital media. The most challenging type of watermarking is the imperceptible one, which embeds identifying information in the data while retaining the latter's…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-05-12 Natan Semyonov , Rami Puzis , Asaf Shabtai , Gilad Katz
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