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This paper reviews gradient-based techniques to solve bilevel optimization problems. Bilevel optimization is a general way to frame the learning of systems that are implicitly defined through a quantity that they minimize. This…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-26 Nicolas Zucchet , João Sacramento

We study a class of bilevel optimization problems in which both the upper- and lower-level problems have minimax structures. This setting captures a broad range of emerging applications. Despite the extensive literature on bilevel…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2026-05-11 Yiyang Shen , Yutian He , Weiran Wang , Qihang Lin

Bilevel optimization is a central tool in machine learning for high-dimensional hyperparameter tuning. Its applications are vast; for instance, in imaging it can be used for learning data-adaptive regularizers and optimizing forward…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2025-11-11 Mohammad Sadegh Salehi , Subhadip Mukherjee , Lindon Roberts , Matthias J. Ehrhardt

Current state-of-the-art solution techniques for solving bilevel optimization problems either assume strong problem regularity criteria or are computationally intractable. In this paper we address power system problems of bilevel structure,…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-06-21 Domagoj Vlah , Karlo Šepetanc , Hrvoje Pandžić

Many expensive black-box optimisation problems are sensitive to their inputs. In these problems it makes more sense to locate a region of good designs, than a single-possibly fragile-optimal design. Expensive black-box functions can be…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-16 Nicholas D. Sanders , Richard M. Everson , Jonathan E. Fieldsend , Alma A. M. Rahat

We consider the standard optimistic bilevel optimization problem, in particular upper- and lower-level constraints can be coupled. By means of the lower-level value function, the problem is transformed into a single-level optimization…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2019-12-17 Andreas Fischer , Alain B. Zemkoho , Shenglong Zhou

We consider black-box optimization in which only an extremely limited number of function evaluations, on the order of around 100, are affordable and the function evaluations must be performed in even fewer batches of a limited number of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-19 Carlos Ansotegui , Meinolf Sellmann , Tapan Shah , Kevin Tierney

We describe a general-purpose method for finding high-quality solutions to hard optimization problems, inspired by self-organized critical models of co-evolution such as the Bak-Sneppen model. The method, called Extremal Optimization,…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2007-05-23 Stefan Boettcher , Allon G. Percus

Optimum implementation of non-conventional wells allows us to increase considerably hydrocarbon recovery. By considering the high drilling cost and the potential improvement in well productivity, well placement decision is an important…

Computational Engineering, Finance, and Science · Computer Science 2010-11-25 Zyed Bouzarkouna , Didier Yu Ding , Anne Auger

Theoretical and empirical research on evolutionary computation methods complement each other by providing two fundamentally different approaches towards a better understanding of black-box optimization heuristics. In discrete optimization,…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2018-08-20 Carola Doerr , Furong Ye , Sander van Rijn , Hao Wang , Thomas Bäck

Bilevel optimization minimizes an objective function, defined by an upper-level problem whose feasible region is the solution of a lower-level problem. We study the oracle complexity of finding an $\epsilon$-stationary point with…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2025-12-01 Lesi Chen , Jingzhao Zhang

Multi-objective optimization problems are ubiquitous in real-world science, engineering and design optimization problems. It is not uncommon that the objective functions are as a black box, the evaluation of which usually involve…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2021-09-14 Ke Li , Renzhi Chen

Generative models form the backbone of modern machine learning, underpinning state-of-the-art systems in text, vision, and multimodal applications. While Maximum Likelihood Estimation has traditionally served as the dominant training…

Bilevel optimization and bilevel minimax optimization have recently emerged as unifying frameworks for a range of machine-learning tasks, including hyperparameter optimization and reinforcement learning. The existing literature focuses on…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-23 Xuelin Zhang , Peipei Yuan

This paper investigates a class of stochastic bilevel optimization problems where the upper-level function is nonconvex with potentially unbounded smoothness and the lower-level problem is strongly convex. These problems have significant…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-16 Xiaochuan Gong , Jie Hao , Mingrui Liu

Many combinatorial optimization problems entail a number of hierarchically dependent optimization problems. An often used solution is to associate a suitably large cost with each individual optimization problem, such that the solution of…

Logic in Computer Science · Computer Science 2009-04-02 Josep Argelich , Ines Lynce , Joao Marques-Silva

This study targets the mixed-integer black-box optimization (MI-BBO) problem where continuous and integer variables should be optimized simultaneously. The CMA-ES, our focus in this study, is a population-based stochastic search method that…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2023-01-13 Ryoki Hamano , Shota Saito , Masahiro Nomura , Shinichi Shirakawa

Evolutionary multi-objective optimization (EMO) algorithms have been demonstrated to be effective in solving multi-criteria decision-making problems. In real-world applications, analysts often employ several algorithms concurrently and…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2024-08-09 Yansong Huang , Zherui Zhang , Ao Jiao , Yuxin Ma , Ran Cheng

Both bilevel and robust optimization are established fields of mathematical optimization and operations research. However, only until recently, the similarities in their mathematical structure has neither been studied theoretically nor…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2026-02-20 Henri Lefebvre , Martin Schmidt , Simon Stevens , Johannes Thürauf

Hyperparameter optimization in machine learning is often achieved using naive techniques that only lead to an approximate set of hyperparameters. Although techniques such as Bayesian optimization perform an intelligent search on a given…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-21 Ankur Sinha , Satender Gunwal , Shivam Kumar